6 Strange Rules Ladies-in-Waiting Had To Follow

Queen Elizabeth’s ladies

Author Kristina Wright

April 24, 2024

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Being born into royalty has always come with many unique privileges, including having a large number of servants and staff to cater to your every need and whim. One of the most trusted positions held in royal households has been that of the lady-in-waiting, or court lady, a title given to the companions of queens, princesses, and other female members of royal or noble lineage. While ladies-in-waiting may seem like relics of the past, they remain a fixture in many royal European courts, and being selected for the position is considered both a prestigious honor and a lifelong commitment. Upon her death in 2022, Queen Elizabeth II had several ladies-in-waiting, some of whom had served her for more than 60 years.

The origins of this royal role go back centuries, and the duties and expectations that come with it vary depending on the time period and the specific customs of the court. In the past, typical responsibilities included providing companionship, assisting with bathing and dressing, managing the wardrobe and jewelry, helping to navigate social situations, writing correspondence, overseeing servants, and running errands. Ladies-in-waiting have traditionally been chosen from noble and aristocratic families, and were selected based on their social standing, education, and suitability for the role.

Well educated and fluent in court etiquette, the ladies-in-waiting in European courts from the medieval era through the 19th century held a significant place in the royal entourage and played an indispensable role in supporting their mistresses across various aspects of their public and private lives. While there were many rules and expectations for royal ladies-in-waiting, here are a few of their more surprising responsibilities.

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They Were Expected to Dedicate Their Lives to Their Mistress

While not a servant in the traditional sense, ladies-in-waiting were once expected to dedicate a considerable amount of time to their mistress’s needs, which sometimes meant giving up any personal life of their own. Queen Charlotte, the wife of King George III and queen of Great Britain and Ireland from 1761 until her death in 1818, had particularly rigid expectations for the court ladies who served her and her daughters. She did not allow outsiders into the palace and even forbade Fanny Burney, a senior lady-in-waiting who held the position of Keeper of the Robes, from maintaining or forming any relationships without the queen’s knowledge.

They Slept in the Queen’s Bedchamber

Historically, a lady-in-waiting had many duties and was expected to fulfill her responsibilities around the clock, even while her mistress was sleeping. In fact, it wasn’t uncommon for one or more court ladies to share a sleeping space with a royal woman. Elizabeth I, an unmarried monarch in a male-dominated society, shared her bedchamber with a trusted court lady, a decision that safeguarded both her safety and reputation. Given Elizabeth’s bouts of insomnia and fear of the dark, this arrangement provided her with comfort and reassurance, and allowed her to have a trusted confidant always nearby.

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They Kept Their Mistress Entertained

It wasn’t all work and no play for royal companions. In their free time, ladies-in-waiting enjoyed a variety of hobbies, including reading and embroidery. The women who attended Henry VIII’s fourth wife, Anne of Cleves, were expected to excel in the pursuits enjoyed by noblewomen, including dancing, singing, playing musical instruments, and engaging in dice and card games. Some ladies-in-waiting even played dress-up. As a distraction from the challenges of marriage and court life, Marie Antoinette had a replica of a farming village built on the grounds of the Palace of Versailles. There, she and her ladies-in-waiting dressed in costumes and pretended to be peasants.

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They Had to Navigate Catching the Eye of the King

Being a queen’s lady-in-waiting often meant learning how to diplomatically, and discreetly, deal with a king. Sometimes, the relationship between a court lady and the king became scandalously intimate. Three of Henry VIII’s six wives — Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, and Catherine Howard — served as ladies-in-waiting to the wives who preceded them, while his last wife, Catherine Parr, held the position to his eldest daughter, Mary Tudor. However, not every lady-in-waiting yielded to a king’s desires. Frances Stuart, who served King Charles II’s wife, Catherine of Braganza, steadfastly rebuffed Charles’ advances. Despite the king’s enduring affection for the beautiful noblewoman, Frances prioritized her duties as a lady-in-waiting and sought a respectable marriage for herself.

They Traveled, and Moved, With Their Mistress

Along with attending their mistresses in their royal households, ladies-in-waiting also traveled alongside them as chaperones and companions. If their mistress moved to a new country for marriage or education, they often went with her. At the age of 5, Mary, Queen of Scots, was betrothed to Francis, the son of France’s King Henry II and the dauphin of France. In preparation for her future role as queen, she was sent to France and was accompanied by her four equally young ladies-in-waiting, who were known as the “four Marys” because they all shared the same name as their mistress.

They Had to Do the Queen’s Bidding or Risk Banishment

History is filled with stories of court ladies paying the price for their illicit activities, with punishments ranging from banishment to imprisonment to execution. But at least one lady-in-waiting had her reputation tarnished undeservedly. In 1839, Flora Hastings, a lady-in-waiting to Queen Victoria, found herself embroiled in scandal when she was accused of having an illicit relationship with John Conroy, an influential adviser to Victoria’s mother. When Flora exhibited abdominal swelling and refused a medical examination, speculation arose that she was carrying Conroy’s child. Victoria demanded that Flora undergo an examination by the queen’s personal physician, James Clark, or be banished from court. When Flora eventually relented to the intrusive and humiliating exam, she was diagnosed with an abdominal tumor, not pregnancy, and died a short time later of liver cancer.

The Most Powerful Women Rulers in History

Elizabeth I of England

Author Tony Dunnell

February 27, 2024

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Due to the incomplete nature of our historical records, it’s impossible to say when the first female ruler came to power. Some might point to Kubaba, a tavern keeper who supposedly ascended to the throne of Sumer — one of the largest civilizations in ancient Mesopotamia — around 2400 BCE. If the story is true, it would make her arguably the first documented female ruler in human history — but chances are it’s a myth. There’s more evidence to back the claim of Sobekneferu, who reigned as a full pharaoh in ancient Egypt from around 1760 to 1756 BCE. But was she truly the first female ruler of a significant civilization, or did someone come before? The answer remains lost to history.

What we do know is that many women throughout recorded history have come to rule even while living in cultures long dominated by men. And some of these women achieved a level of power rarely matched, despite the disadvantages they experienced in their patriarchal societies. Here are some of the most powerful women rulers in history, from the Pharaoh Hatshepsut to Queen Elizabeth I.

Hatshepsut

Hatshepsut first came to power in 1479 BCE as the regent for her stepson (and nephew) Thutmose III, who had inherited the throne at the age of 2. For almost seven years, Hatshepsut was a fairly conventional regent. But then, she took the unprecedented step of assuming both the title and powers of a true pharaoh, and began ruling Egypt alongside Thutmose III. To further assert her authority, she had herself portrayed in formal portraits as a man, with a muscular male body, traditional kingly regalia, and a false beard. She became one of the first truly powerful female rulers known to history. Her reign brought about a period of economic prosperity and general peace, and she was one of the most prolific builders in the history of ancient Egypt.

Zenobia

Zenobia’s rule as the queen of the Roman colony of Palmyra (present-day Syria) lasted for only a few short years, from around 267 to 272 CE. During that time, however, her power was undeniable, and she even posed a threat to the mighty Roman Empire. She took the throne after her husband, Odaenathus, and his eldest son, Herodes, were assassinated. Unlike her husband, Zenobia was not content being a client ruler of Palmyra under Rome’s watchful eye. She defied the Roman Emperor Aurelian and boldly seized control of almost the entire eastern part of the empire, including one of its most valuable jewels, Egypt. Aurelian could not afford to sit back and watch Zenobia’s power grow. He marched on the Palmyrene Empire with his entire army, a force that was simply too strong for Zenobia. She was captured and taken back to Rome in chains. From there, historians differ on her fate. Some say she starved herself to death, while others say she was beheaded, though the happier version has her put on trial but acquitted, after which she married and lived the rest of her life in Rome.

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Theodora

Theodora was born in the fifth century CE in Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey) into the lower rungs of society. As a young woman she worked as an actress — a job that at the time was in the same class as prostitution. She later moved to Egypt, where she converted to Miaphysite Christianity. Then, on her return to Constantinople — the capital of the mighty Byzantine Empire (or Eastern Roman Empire) — she met Justinian, the empire’s influential heir-apparent. Dazzled by her beauty, vibrancy, and intelligence, Justinian made her his mistress and they married in 525 CE. Two years later, Justinian succeeded to the throne, and it was soon clear that Theodora and Justinian were ruling as intellectual and political equals. In fact, some believed that Theodora was the true ruler of Byzantium. She oversaw much of the reformation of the empire, including construction projects and the establishment of new laws. As empress, she fought for the persecuted and was one of the first rulers in history to recognize the rights of women. She established laws to protect the rights of prostitutes, gave more power to women in divorce cases, and abolished a law that allowed women to be killed for committing adultery.

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Wu Zetian

Empress Wu Zetian, also known as Wu Zhao, was the first and only female emperor of China. When she was only 14 years old, she was summoned to join the royal court as an imperial concubine of Emperor Taizong of the powerful Tang dynasty. Upon Taizong’s death, she began a relationship with the new emperor, Gaozong, with whom she had four sons and one daughter. She served as empress consort of the Tang dynasty, and after Gaozong’s death, as empress dowager. She then took the unprecedented action of founding her own dynasty, which she ruled as emperor from 690 to 705 CE. Her rise wasn’t without opposition, but Wu Zetian was certainly not weak — she continued to eliminate her rivals, as she had done throughout her life, including her own relatives. As empress, she was both feared and respected. She governed well and employed able advisers in positions of authority, and by the end of her reign, China had become a force to be reckoned with. Wu Zetian was undeniably a powerful figure, but her legacy remains controversial due to her often extreme methods, which may have included brutally killing people, including her own family members, to serve her own advancement. Whether the accounts of her violent acts are all true, however, remains a matter of historical debate.

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Elizabeth I

In 16th-century Europe, many people believed that a woman wasn’t fit to rule, and the 44-year reign of Elizabeth I went a long way to changing that widely held belief. Having previously been imprisoned in the Tower of London on the orders of her half-sister, Queen Mary I, Elizabeth later ascended to the throne of England in 1558. The kingdom she inherited was relatively small and threatened by internal division. Elizabeth, however, transformed and unified the nation, bringing about a golden age — the Elizabethan age — in which the arts and sciences flourished and England became a true global force. Elizabeth chose not to marry, earning her the moniker the “Virgin Queen,” a decision that partly arose from her unwillingness to compromise her power. She famously defeated the mighty Spanish Armada, and her famous words in 1588 ahead of that battle helped define her position as a powerful ruler: “I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too.”

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Catherine the Great

Russia’s Catherine II, also known as Catherine the Great, came to power by overthrowing her own husband, the neurotic, obstinate, and altogether unpopular Peter III. (He died eight days after he was removed from power, and it’s still not known if Catherine had a role in his death.) Catherine proved to be a highly effective ruler. She surrounded herself with capable advisers — some of whom, most notably Grigory Potemkin, were her lovers — and set about expanding Russia’s borders, adding the territories of Crimea, Belarus, Lithuania, and much of Poland. As a patron of the arts, literature, and education, Catherine led Russia into a new era of political and cultural engagement in Europe. She embraced many of the principles of the intellectual movement known as the Enlightenment, and her court began to attract some of Europe's greatest minds.

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Cixi

The Empress Dowager Cixi is widely considered a cruel and greedy tyrant — although the extent of her cruelties is very much an ongoing debate. What is beyond question is that Cixi was one of the most powerful women in the history of China. She entered the court of the late Qing dynasty as a concubine of the Xianfeng Emperor, with whom she had a child. When the emperor died in 1861, Cixi assumed the role of co-empress dowager, and later took control of the dynasty by installing her nephew as the Guangxu emperor, with herself as regent. In effect, she held supreme power over the empire for 40 years, until her death in 1908. Cixi’s legacy is complex, to say the least. She ruled over a turbulent period, including the Boxer Rebellion and the subsequent foreign invasion of China. And she certainly engaged in political killings. These, by some estimates, totaled a few dozen and included Guangxu's son's favorite concubine and, later, the Guangxu emperor himself. While Cixi was undeniably a powerful ruler, her legacy serves as a reminder of how power can corrupt.

The 6 Wives of Henry VIII

Marriage of Henry VIII

Author Kristina Wright

December 14, 2023

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Henry VIII left an indelible mark on British history, though he is remembered as much for his insatiable appetite for women and food as for his shrewd political maneuvers. Born in 1491, Henry ascended the throne at the young age of 17, succeeding his father, Henry VII. His youth was marked by interests in the arts, sports, and education, making him the embodiment of a Renaissance man, as well as a promising and charismatic ruler. It was the monarch’s matrimonial escapades, however, that came to define his legacy.

Henry’s reign, spanning from 1509 to 1547, was characterized by a series of tumultuous marriages entwined in Tudor politics. You may be familiar with the old rhyme, “Divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived,” but here’s a closer look at the six women who became the wives of Henry VIII.

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Catherine of Aragon (queen consort: 1509-1533)

Henry VIII had been on the throne for only a few weeks when he married Catherine of Aragon. The daughter of Spanish rulers Ferdinand and Isabella, Catherine was six years older than Henry and was seen as a good match for the young monarch. Beautiful, well educated, and devoted to Henry, Catherine was also the king’s sister-in-law, having married his older brother Arthur in 1501, only to be widowed five months later at the age of 16. Her marriage to Henry lasted 24 years, but ended in divorce.

By all accounts, Henry had loved Catherine, but when she failed to give him a male heir, he asked Pope Clement VII to declare their marriage invalid, asserting that her marriage to Arthur made their union illegitimate in the eyes of God. When the pope refused, Henry divorced Catherine so he could marry his pregnant mistress (and Catherine’s lady-in-waiting), the French-educated Anne Boleyn, setting in motion his break from the Catholic Church and the establishment of the Church of England. Despite being divorced, dismissed from court, and kept from her only living child, Mary, Catherine’s devotion to Henry lasted until her death by cancer in 1536. The last line of the last letter she wrote him read, “Lastly, I make this vow, that mine eyes desire you above all things.”

Anne Boleyn (queen consort: 1533-1536)

Remembered as “Anne of a Thousand Days,” Anne Boleyn is perhaps the most famous of Henry’s wives, in part because of the grisly end she met just three short years after marrying the king. Anne gave birth to Henry’s second daughter, Elizabeth, just three months after she was crowned queen consort, and because Mary, Henry’s daughter with Katherine, had been declared illegitimate following their divorce, Elizabeth was named the heir to the throne. (She was crowned Queen Elizabeth I in 1559, and became one of the most famous monarchs in English history.)

After Anne suffered a series of miscarriages, including the stillborn birth of the son Henry so desperately wanted, Henry turned his attention to one of Anne’s ladies-in-waiting, Jane Seymour. Meanwhile, the king’s adviser Thomas Cromwell, who had once been an ally of Anne’s, built a case against her, accusing her of numerous crimes including adultery, treason, witchcraft, and incest. With little evidence presented to support any of her so-called crimes, Anne was nonetheless beheaded at the Tower of London in May 1536.

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Jane Seymour (queen consort: 1536-1537)

Having served as a lady-in-waiting to both Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour was well aware of Henry’s desire for a male heir. Her virtuous nature caught the Tudor king’s interest and, when she rejected a letter and purse of money from Henry on the grounds that her honor was more important than riches, he became even more besotted. Just days after Anne Boleyn’s death, the newly single Henry married Jane, making her his third wife.

Jane went on to do what Henry’s two previous wives had not: She bore him a living son. Her pregnancy was announced in March 1537 and Henry vowed to stay close to his wife. She gave birth to their son, Edward, on October 12, only to die 12 days later. Their marriage lasted just 17 months, but Jane was Henry’s only wife to die as queen and receive a royal funeral. At his death, Henry was buried near her in St. George’s Chapel at Windsor Castle.

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Anne of Cleves (queen consort: 1540)

Having lost Jane to complications from childbirth, Henry sought to form a political alliance with William, Duke of Cleves, the ruler of a Protestant territory in Germany, by marrying one of his sisters. Henry’s political motivations were only part of his reason for deciding to wed again — he also wanted a second son. He chose Anne of Cleves as his bride-to-be based on her portrait, and was bitterly disappointed by his betrothed’s appearance when they finally met, saying, “I see nothing in this woman as men report of her.”

Henry was no longer interested in marrying plain, innocent Anne, but there was no way to back out of the wedding, despite Thomas Cromwell’s attempts. Wanting to be free of his betrothed, Henry blamed her physical appearance on his inability to consummate their marriage and had their union annulled just six months later. Anne and Henry maintained an affectionate bond, however, and Anne outlived Henry and all of his other wives.

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Catherine Howard (queen consort: 1540-1542)

Having served as a lady-in-waiting to Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard was likely still a teenager when she caught Henry’s eye — but she was also far more experienced than her predecessor. Historians theorize that Catherine might have been sexually abused by her music teacher when she was a young teen, and she had relationships with both her grandmother’s secretary and one of Henry’s courtiers before marrying the aging monarch just a few weeks after his marriage to Anne of Cleves was annulled. Henry seemed happy with his young new bride, but when the truth about Catherine’s past relationships came to light, as well as accusations of an affair with Thomas Culpeper, a friend of the king’s, Henry had her stripped of her title and imprisoned. A few months later, she was beheaded for treason and adultery.

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Catherine Parr (queen consort: 1543-1547)

Henry VIII’s last wife was Catherine Parr, a widow and scholar known as the “lucky queen,” as she survived the death of the fickle king. Married and widowed twice, Catherine met Henry while serving as a lady-in-waiting to his eldest daughter, Mary Tudor. Catherine’s mother, Maud, had been a lady-in-waiting for Catherine of Aragon, and Maud named her daughter in honor of Henry’s first wife. Catherine Parr resisted Henry’s marriage appeals at first, in part because she was in love with someone else in the king’s circle: Thomas Seymour, the brother of Henry’s third wife, Jane, and uncle to his son Edward.

But Henry was not deterred, and he married Catherine in 1543 at age 52. After their marriage, Catherine proved to be a unifying force as stepmother to Henry’s three children. A religious reformer and the first woman in England to publish a book in her own name, Catherine was widowed for a third time when Henry died on January 28, 1547. The king’s death made it possible for Catherine to marry Thomas Seymour, but she died from complications of childbirth shortly after, in September 1548.

5 Ways Julius Caesar Changed the World

Gaius Julius Caesar

Author Nicole Villeneuve

November 30, 2023

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He may not have ruled the Roman Republic for very long, but Julius Caesar left behind a towering legacy. From his early days as a young aristocrat to his rise as a triumphant military leader, Caesar’s lofty aspirations, unrelenting conquests, and political reforms made him a revered leader. Almost as quickly as he ascended to unrivaled authority, he was dramatically assassinated, leading to civil upheaval and the demise of the Roman Republic — which ultimately heralded the start of the Roman Empire. Caesar remains respected for his strategic brilliance and studied for the far-reaching implications his actions had on Western civilization — including these five ways that Caesar’s life and legacy helped shape the world.

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His Death Triggered the Rise of the Roman Empire

In 49 BCE, Caesar was a successful military general and popular political leader, having skillfully led the Roman army in Gaul for eight years. But his influence and growing power clashed with the Roman Senate’s desire to maintain power in the republic. Fearing Caesar’s aspirations as his governorship of Gaul came to an end, the Senate demanded he disband his legions and return to Rome on his own. Caesar instead famously crossed the Rubicon, leading his army across a small stream separating Italy from Gaul. The move violated Roman law and marked the beginning of a four-year civil war between Caesar’s forces and those of his former ally Pompey, from which Caesar emerged victorious.

When he returned to Rome in 46 BCE, Caesar became dictator of the republic. After two years and several more military victories, Caesar declared himself dictator perpetuo — dictator in perpetuity. This unprecedented authority effectively eroded the traditional checks and balances of the Roman Republic and spurred a group of senators to assassinate Caesar on March 15, 44 BCE. His death plunged Rome into further chaos; a power struggle among Caesar’s key supporters, most notably his adopted heir Octavian (later known as Augustus) culminated in the end of the Roman Republic and the eventual rise of Augustus as the first Roman emperor.

He Spread Roman Influence Throughout Europe

Caesar's conquest of Gaul, consisting of modern-day France and Belgium, as well as parts of Switzerland, Germany, and the Netherlands, was crucial for spreading Roman influence throughout Europe. It added not only a substantial amount of land to Rome’s holdings, but also wealth.

In 55 BCE, the relentless Roman general led his first of two expeditions to Britain. While neither that nor the second trip the following year was successful at taking over the land, the expedition laid the foundation for Rome to eventually conquer much of the British Isles. These conquests weren’t just about land and riches — they were all part of Caesar's ultimate political ambitions. By increasing his military support and popularity with the people, Caesar set the stage for his pursuit of more power in Rome. As he conquered more regions, he integrated the republic’s legal and political systems and increased trade by expanding the network of roads leading in and out of Rome. The famous bridges Caesar built on the Rhine River during the Gallic Wars are just a few of many aqueducts ancient Rome is known for.

He Introduced the 365-Day Calendar

In 46 BCE, Caesar, advised by the Greek astronomer Sosigenes, reformed the Roman calendar. The traditional calendar was based on the phases of the moon and was often out of sync with the solar year. The new system, influenced by the Egyptian calendar, was based on calculations of a solar year of 365.25 days. The calendar was divided into 12 months, with an additional day added every four years to ensure the calendar stayed in line with the Earth’s orbit around the sun. The Julian calendar — named for its progenitor — was implemented on January 1, 45 BCE.

The calendar became the predominant timekeeping system in the Western world, but the calculations were just a little bit off — the solar year ran about 11 minutes shorter than expected. By 1582, the miscalculations had added up to a 10-day discrepancy. It was rectified by the Gregorian calendar, modified by Pope Gregory XIII and introduced in 1582, but the Julian calendar’s standardized method of measuring time continues to structure our lives to this day.

He Changed Political Strategy

Caesar’s political ambition and reforms had an enduring impact on political thought and practice in Rome and beyond. One of his most powerful strategies was cultivating support from common Roman citizens, as well as his army, as a means of gaining popularity that would bolster his rise to power.

After naming himself the republic’s dictator, he made a number of revolutionary political reforms: He supported redistributing land to go to veterans or to the poor, canceled debt and rent payments for a period of time, and planned a public library, to name a few. His populist approach worked. After his death, the Senate granted him divine status, making him the first historical Roman to achieve the status.

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He Inspired a Shakespeare Play

Caesar was hailed as a master orator in his time, but he was also a celebrated author. His writing style, which was praised for its clarity and elegance, lives on in very few published works; his war memoirs, Commentarii De Bello Gallico (an account of the Gallic Wars) and Commentarii de Bello Civili (an account of Rome’s civil war), are the only surviving primary texts. His Gallic Wars account in particular is popular not only for its insight into Roman geographic and military history, but also as a beginner’s guide to learning Latin.

Of course, it isn’t just his own work that lives on: Caesar’s remarkable rule inspired one of the most famous works by one of history’s greatest playwrights. Julius Caesar, by William Shakespeare, is an enduring classroom and theatrical favorite, and remains a popular point of reference from which to explore one of history’s most influential rulers.

5 Myths About the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra

Egyptian Queen Cleopatra

Author Kristina Wright

August 3, 2023

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Though she’s one of the most famous leaders of the ancient world, Cleopatra’s life is still shrouded in mystery. Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator ruled Egypt for 22 years as a powerful queen, and while her legacy is filled with tales of a goddess incarnate who seduced men to get what she wanted and had no problem killing anyone who got in her way (even her own siblings), much of this image is thanks to Hollywood and other pop culture depictions of the Egyptian queen. Actress Elizabeth Taylor famously played her in the big-budget 1963 film Cleopatra, and there have been numerous other portrayals of this enigmatic leader in art, fiction, and film — most of them filled with anachronisms and exaggerations and lacking in historical accuracy.

What historians do know is that when Cleopatra’s father, Ptolemy XII, died in 51 BCE, 18-year-old Cleopatra was named his successor. Over the course of her reign, she ruled alongside two of her brothers and her oldest son. She envisioned herself as the sole ruler of Egypt, however, and formed alliances with two of Rome’s most powerful generals in order to protect and maintain her power. In 47 BCE, she bore a son by Julius Caesar, nicknaming him Caesarion, or “little Caesar,” despite his illegitimacy. A few years later, in 44 BCE, Cleopatra’s relationship with Caesar came to an abrupt end when the Roman leader was assassinated, forcing her to develop new strategic alliances to secure her reign.

The Egyptian queen found a new political and romantic partner in Caesar’s friend and ally Mark Antony. With Antony, Cleopatra continued her political alliance with Rome, and they had three children together. However, Caesar’s adopted son Octavian declared war on the pair, leading to their untimely deaths. Cleopatra died in 30 BCE at age 39, as the last Egyptian queen and next-to-last Egyptian pharaoh. (Octavian had the last pharaoh, Cleopatra and Caesar’s 17-year-old son Caesarion, put to death just days later.) Octavian went on to become the first Roman emperor, dubbed Augustus Caesar, embracing his role as Caesar’s heir and ending the Ptolemaic kingdom.

It has been over 2,000 years since Cleopatra’s death, but her fascinating life still captures the imagination. Here are five popular myths about the Egyptian queen that separate the truth from the legend.

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Myth: Cleopatra Was Ethnically Egyptian

Cleopatra is one of the best-known figures in Egypt’s history , but she wasn’t ethnically Egyptian. Though she was born in Alexandria, Egypt, around 69 BCE, Cleopatra’s lineage is traced to Macedonian Greece. She was the daughter of Ptolemy XII, a descendant of Ptolemy I Soter, a Macedonian general who served under Alexander the Great and founded the Ptolemaic dynasty that ruled in Egypt. Historians aren’t certain about the identity of Cleopatra’s mother, but theories suggest Cleopatra was the daughter of either Ptolemy’s first wife, Cleopatra V; his second wife, whose name is unknown; or a concubine.

Myth: Cleopatra Wasn’t Prepared to Be Queen

Little is known about Cleopatra’s life before she became queen, but as a member of Ptolemaic royalty, she was highly educated and received a well-rounded Hellenistic education that included rhetoric, philosophy, astronomy, music, and Greek literature. She spoke around nine languages (Egyptian, Greek, Latin, Syrian, Arabic, Hebrew, Ethiopian, Persian, and Aramaic) and was the first of the Ptolemaic line to learn the Egyptian language. Praised for her intellect, she was knowledgeable in a wide variety of subjects, including economics, military strategy, law, and linguistics.

Myth: Cleopatra Was Known for Her Beauty

Accounts of Cleopatra’s life often suggest she was a beautiful seductress, a myth likely started by Octavian to justify his ongoing rivalry with Mark Antony. Few ancient historians characterized Cleopatra as beautiful and the existing artifacts bearing her likeness are inconsistent in their portrayal of the Egyptian queen. Some coins, for instance, show Cleopatra having more masculine features, such as a strong jaw, sloped forehead, and aquiline nose, perhaps as a way of emphasizing her leadership strength. Other artifacts present her with a more conventionally feminine appearance, accentuating rounded cheeks, stylishly curled hair, and a small chin. While legend attributed Cleopatra’s power to her beauty, it was her intellect and charisma that garnered her the devotion of others. In his 75 CE biography, Life of Antony, Greek philosopher and historian Plutarch wrote of Cleopatra, “For her actual beauty, it is said, was not in itself so remarkable that none could be compared with her… but the contact of her presence, if you lived with her, was irresistible.”

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Myth: Cleopatra Wasn’t a Good Leader

Born into royalty, Cleopatra was the wealthiest woman in the world during her lifetime and is still one of the wealthiest people in all of history, with an assigned net worth of tens of billions in today’s currency. She identified as the living manifestation of the goddess Isis, adorning herself in beautiful fabrics and priceless jewels, and enjoying an extravagant and decadent lifestyle. But far from being a mere figurehead, Cleopatra was a savvy public relations expert, skilled at both political and military tactics. She took an active role in leading Egypt, using her intelligence and charisma to build valuable strategic alliances in order to protect Egypt’s independence from the Roman Empire. By establishing trade with Eastern nations, she grew Egypt’s economy and solidified its position as a world power.

Myth: A Brokenhearted Cleopatra Died By Snakebite

In 31 BCE, Antony and Cleopatra were overwhelmed by Octavian’s formidable forces and lost the Battle of Actium, forcing the pair to retreat to Alexandria. As the war raged on, the lovers made a pact to take their own lives rather than risk capture by Octavian. When Octavian’s forces entered Alexandria in 30 BCE, Antony, believing Cleopatra was already dead, fell on his own sword. Cleopatra, however, was still alive and barricaded in the seaside mausoleum she was constructing for herself.

The most well-known legend about Cleopatra’s death features a grief-stricken queen coaxing a venomous viper or cobra to bite her. It is generally accepted that Cleopatra died by suicide, but the details of how it was executed may never be known. It seems unlikely that she would have used an imprecise method such as a snakebite, and many historians believe she may have drunk poison or used a toxic ointment instead. While Cleopatra might have grieved the loss of Antony in the days following his death, it was more likely the threat of being paraded through the streets as Octavian’s prisoner that motivated her to end her life.

5 Facts About England’s Elizabethan Era

Elizabeth at Tilbury

Author Adam Levine

July 25, 2023

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In 1558, Elizabeth Tudor assumed the throne of England and Ireland and began her reign as Queen Elizabeth I. From the moment she was crowned, Elizabeth was an unconventional ruler. She was only the second queen in England’s history to reign as the sole head of state, which made her a rarity not only in her own country, but throughout Europe in an era in which female monarchs were few and far between. Her lifelong refusal to marry also broke with tradition, and earned her the nickname “the Virgin Queen” (the state of Virginia is named in her honor). As a Protestant monarch, Elizabeth also had to withstand multiple assassination attempts from radical Catholic factions throughout her reign. Yet despite the challenges she faced, her reign is considered a golden age of English history.

Elizabeth’s rule lasted until 1603, and was marked by a period of relative peace and progress, during which England experienced radical cultural and political transformations that continue to resonate today. Elizabeth ruled over a nation that saw the early plays of William Shakespeare and some of Europe’s first expeditions to the Americas. Yet her time on the throne was also marked by moments of political and military crisis. For a quick look at what made this period of history truly unique, here are five facts about England’s Elizabethan age.

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Elizabeth’s Coronation Date Was Chosen Based on Astrology

Queen Elizabeth I was crowned on January 15, 1559, a date selected by one man: John Dee. Dee was an influential figure at court, and was well known as a mathematician and philosopher. But his interests also veered into the supernatural and occult, and he was known to dabble in astrology and numerology. His prophecy skills must have come highly recommended, because Elizabeth asked him to use an astrological reading to select the date of her coronation, believing that an auspicious date would bring her good fortune during her reign.

The Era Marked the Beginning of British Colonialism in the New World

During the Elizabethan age, England took the first steps toward transforming from a small island nation into a global empire. British navigators made some of the first voyages to the New World during Elizabeth’s reign, and explorer Francis Drake’s voyages to the Americas gave England its first territorial claim in the Americas. Upon his return, Drake was knighted by Elizabeth herself on board his ship the Golden Hind.

The queen also oversaw the establishment of England’s first colonies in the New World. The explorer Humphrey Gilbert claimed Newfoundland for Elizabeth, and Walter Raleigh established a British colony on the island of Roanoke near North Carolina. These early settlements marked the beginning of an era of colonial expansion that gave rise to the mighty British Empire, which at its peak in 1920 covered over 13 million square miles and was the largest empire the world has ever seen.

The Era Was a Time of Great Religious Upheaval

Elizabethan England wasn’t without its problems, and one of the most significant was the riff between English Catholics loyal to the Vatican and English Protestants loyal to the Church of England. As the head of the Church of England, Queen Elizabeth had a vested interest in religious conformity, and made it a legal requirement for all British subjects to attend Church of England services on Sundays, regardless of their religious affiliation. (She also made it a finable offense to attend a Catholic mass.) The tensions between Catholics and Protestants lasted throughout Elizabeth’s reign. The queen withstood four separate plots to overthrow her and replace her with her Catholic cousin, Mary, Queen of Scots; eventually, Elizabeth even had Mary executed for conspiring against her.

It Was a Golden Age of British Theater

The Elizabethan age is often regarded as one of the high-water marks of English theater, which became a frequent destination for royalty and common English subjects alike. Some of the most celebrated playwrights ever to write in the English language created their best-known works during Elizabeth I’s reign. The most famous of these is, of course, William Shakespeare. Though Shakespeare’s career as a playwright continued after Elizabeth’s reign ended in 1603, many of the Bard’s most famous works were written while Elizabeth was queen, including A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Romeo and Juliet, and Hamlet. The queen even personally attended performances of The Merry Wives of Windsor and Love’s Labor’s Lost. But England’s dramatic output during Elizabeth’s reign wasn’t just limited to the Bard. Master dramatists such as Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, and Thomas Kyd all produced classic works during this era.

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It Saw England Defeat the Largest Fleet of Warships Ever Assembled (At the Time)

In 1588, Queen Elizabeth I faced the greatest military challenge of her reign: the Spanish Armada. The fearsome naval fleet was launched by King Philip II of Spain in an attempt to convert Protestant England to Catholicism and to neutralize the economic and political threats created by England’s growing power. The Spanish Armada was the largest naval fleet that had ever been assembled, with around 130 ships carrying more than 19,000 soldiers. Its size even earned it the nickname “the Invincible Armada.” Despite being outnumbered, the English were able to defeat the Spanish Armada, in part because of a devastating tactic in which eight ships were set on fire and sent into the midst of the Spanish fleet, forcing the ships of the Armada to scatter and weaken their formation. The English victory over the Spanish Armada signaled to the world that Queen Elizabeth I was a monarch to be reckoned with.

7 Facts About the Life and Reign of Queen Victoria

Queen Victoria’s family

Author Kristina Wright

July 18, 2023

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Few royal monarchs hold as much fascination as England’s Queen Victoria. Her lengthy reign and complex legacy left such a lasting mark on Britain and the world that the era still bears her name. At her birth on May 24, 1819, Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent was only fifth in line to the throne. She was never expected to be queen, but fate had other plans for young “Drina.” Victoria ascended the throne on June 20, 1837, less than a month after her 18th birthday, and ruled for more than 63 years — longer than any British monarch except for her great-great-granddaughter Queen Elizabeth II.

During her rule, the diminutive Queen Victoria developed a reputation as a strong-willed and outspoken sovereign committed to expanding and strengthening the British Empire. She oversaw a time of unprecedented industrial expansion, political reform, and social change in England, but her time on the throne was also marked by aggressive colonization. Britain’s imperial reach nearly doubled during Victoria’s reign, until some 25% of the world’s population owed their allegiance to her. Here are seven fascinating facts about the life of the monarch known as the “grandmother of Europe.”

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Victoria Was Delivered by a Woman Doctor

At a time when female doctors were rare, Victoria’s mother, Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, chose to have a woman deliver her baby, rather than a male royal doctor. In some historical resources, Charlotte Heidenreich von Siebold is referred to as a midwife or nurse, but she was formally educated in gynecology and obstetrics and received a doctoral degree in obstetrics from the University of Giessen in 1817. Madam Siebold, as she was called, delivered the future queen at Kensington Palace on May 24, 1819. Three months later, on August 26, 1819, von Siebold delivered Victoria’s first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, at Schloss Rosenau castle near Coburg, Germany.

Queen Victoria Was the First Monarch to Rule From Buckingham Palace

What is now Buckingham Palace was simply Buckingham House when King George III bought it in 1761 for his wife, Queen Charlotte, and their children. After George IV took the throne in 1820, he decided to turn the house into a proper palace and hired architect John Nash to oversee the grand, and expensive, project. The work was still not done when the king died in 1830, and he never lived in the home he’d envisioned. Following her accession to the throne in 1837, Queen Victoria became the first sovereign to make the palace her primary residence. During her reign, the queen oversaw additional renovations and updates to Buckingham Palace, including the installation of electricity in the ballroom in 1883. Queen Victoria also holds the distinction of making the first recorded royal appearance on the palace’s balcony. In 1851, she greeted the public during celebrations for the opening of the Great Exhibition, an international event showcasing advancements in technology from around the world.

Queen Victoria Was a Prolific Writer

Between her diaries and letters, Victoria wrote an estimated 60 million words over her lifetime. Her earliest journal entry, written in 1832 when she was 13, begins, “This book, Mamma gave me, that I might write the journal of my journey to Wales in it.” She continued to document her life for nearly 69 years, writing just 10 days before her death at age 81, “Had a fair night, but was a little wakeful.” At Victoria’s request, her journals were edited after her death by her youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice, presumably to remove anything inappropriate that would upset the royal family or tarnish the monarch’s legacy. Beatrice spent 30 years transcribing and editing her mother’s journals and destroyed many of the original volumes.

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Victoria Proposed to Her Husband, Prince Albert

Born three months apart, Victoria and her German cousin Prince Albert first met in 1836 when they were just teenagers. Their families had intended that they would one day marry, but most accounts suggest theirs was also a loving partnership, punctuated by the highs and lows of a long-term marriage. Following their introduction in 1836, the couple didn’t meet again until October 1839, and it was during that visit that they became engaged. Protocol prohibited Albert from asking for the reigning monarch’s hand, so it was up to Victoria to issue the proposal. In her diary, the queen later wrote, “Oh! how I adore and love him, I cannot say!” The couple were rarely together before their February 1840 wedding, but they often wrote to each other. In one letter to his betrothed, Albert wrote (in German), “Even in my dreams I never imagined that I should find so much love on earth.”

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She Popularized the White Wedding Gown

On her wedding day, Victoria wanted to be seen as Prince Albert’s wife rather than the queen of England, so she chose to wear a white gown instead of the red robe of state. Though she wasn’t the first monarch bride to wear white, it wasn’t a traditional choice for a royal wedding gown, or a nonroyal gown, for that matter. Victoria and Albert’s nuptials were highly publicized, and depictions of Victoria’s simple, elegant dress adorned with orange blossoms conjured an image of romantic purity that soon caught on with brides across Europe and the West. Constructed of silk and lace made in Britain — as both a show of patriotism and to boost a declining industry — the gown featured the nipped waist and full skirt that became the classic wedding dress silhouette.

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After Albert’s Death, She Wore Only Black

Though most of Victoria’s clothes were destroyed, portraits, fabric samples, and journal entries tell us that her early years as queen were highlighted by beautiful, colorful fashion. That changed when Prince Albert died in 1861 after a brief illness. The widowed monarch donned the traditional black mourning attire and ordered the royal household to remain in mourning for a year. Victoria, however, continued to wear black long after the traditional period of public mourning. In fact, she dressed in black (often with a white widow’s cap) every day for the rest of her life, until her own death in 1901.

Victoria’s Descendants Became Monarchs Throughout Europe

After surviving an isolating childhood and the strict set of rules known as the “Kensington System,” Victoria was eager to gain her independence when she ascended the throne at age 18. In fact, one of her first acts as queen was to claim a bedroom separate from her overprotective mother, the Duchess of Kent. Victoria and Albert’s marriage produced nine children in 17 years, and biographies of the queen often mention her distaste for pregnancy and childbirth — what she called the “shadow-side” of marital life.

Still, Victoria’s reign was defined by her desire to grow and strengthen the British Empire, and she balanced her responsibilities as a mother and sovereign by arranging marriages for her children that would increase British influence and assure strong connections throughout Europe. The first of the dynastic marriages arranged by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert was between their eldest daughter, Princess Victoria (Vicky), and the Crown Prince of Prussia, Friedrich Wilhelm, with the goal of unifying the German states and introducing the liberal political ideals of Great Britain. Victoria’s commitment to creating strong marital alliances throughout Europe continued with her other children and grandchildren; her heirs married into other royal families and ascended thrones in Denmark, Germany, Greece, Norway, Russia, and Spain. Of the roughly 28 monarchies that still exist today, five of them are held by Victoria’s descendants.

The Stories Behind 5 Rulers Dubbed “the Great”

Ashoka the Great

Author Adam Levine

June 13, 2023

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A handful of times in history, a ruler has come to power whose influence was so significant that they became known as “the Great.” This esteemed title is not bestowed upon leaders very often — of all the kings and queens to ever sit on the throne in England, for example, only one, King Alfred the Great, has ever earned the moniker. Indeed, to become known for all of history as “great” tends to require doing something singularly impactful — though not necessarily “good.” While some of these famed rulers presided over periods of peace and prosperity, others were brutal conquerors whose reigns were characterized by war and bloodshed. All of them have complicated legacies, but what ties them together is the sheer magnitude of their impact. Here are five historical rulers — spanning from ancient Egypt to Enlightenment-era Russia — who have managed to earn this rare label.

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Ramses the Great Negotiated the Oldest Surviving Peace Treaty

When the Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II launched a military campaign against the Hittites around 1275 BCE, it was as much a matter of pride as it was geopolitical strategy. The Hittites (an ancient people in modern-day Turkey) had invaded northern Egypt for years, including during the reign of Ramses’ father Seti I, when the Hittites regained control of the city of Kadesh (in modern Syria). Ramses was determined to win it back, but though the pharaoh defeated the Hittite army in battle, he wasn’t able to recapture the city. Ultimately, it was Ramses’ knack for diplomacy, not his military prowess, that proved decisive in his relations with the Hittites. Roughly 16 years after his attempt to reconquer Kadesh failed, Ramses negotiated a truce with the Hittites. Codified around 1259 BCE, the agreement is recognized today as the world’s oldest surviving peace treaty.

Among the terms agreed to in the treaty was a nonaggression pact between the Hittites and Egyptians, as well as a pledge between the two empires to come to each other’s aid in future military conflicts. Ramses helped reinforce this new alliance by marrying a Hittite princess, Maathorneferure, several years later, further strengthening the bond between the two cultures. Thanks to the treaty with the Hittites, the Egyptian leader was able to neutralize a growing military threat and secure a powerful new ally all at once. This early peace helped lay the groundwork for his long and prosperous reign, which lasted from 1279 to 1213 BCE and was characterized by economic prosperity and the construction of many dazzling temples and monuments — more than those completed under any other pharaoh in history.

Alexander the Great’s Empire Spanned Three Continents

Alexander the Great became the ruler of the kingdom of Macedonia in 336 BCE, and by the time of his death at age 32, he had conquered much of the known world. Alexander’s relentless push to expand his empire — during which he never lost a battle — has become the stuff of legend. The ambitious and skilled leader kicked off his historic campaign by conquering all of the Greek city-states, defeating multiple armies at once to establish himself as ruler of the Greek world. Then he conquered the Persian Empire and established his namesake capital city in Alexandria, Egypt. His imperial campaign finally came to an end when his exhausted soldiers mutinied while Alexander was attempting to conquer India, but by then his empire spanned three continents: Europe, Asia, and Africa. His conquest spread Greek influence across so much of the world that the decades after his death became known as the Hellenistic period — an era of Greek cultural dominance that lasted from 323 BCE until the rise of the Romans around 300 years later.

Ashoka the Great’s Commitment to Nonviolence Led to the Spread of Buddhism

Ashoka the Great, who ruled the Mauryan Empire in India from around 265 to 238 BCE, oversaw a truly massive kingdom spanning nearly the entire Indian subcontinent, as well as parts of modern-day Iran. In the early years of his reign, Ashoka expanded his empire through violent wars, but he eventually grew to regret the bloodshed that accompanied his conquest. As a result, he renounced all future violence and converted to Buddhism. The remainder of Ashoka’s reign was marked by a commitment to nonviolence and civil service. He was said to have paid close attention to the needs of his subjects, and constructed many public utilities throughout his empire, such as hospitals, wells, and public gardens.

Ashoka was also committed to spreading the nonviolent tenets of Buddhism across Asia. He filled his kingdom with stone pillars inscribed with Buddhist philosophy, and sent missionaries to spread the religion to regions as distant as China, Thailand, and Greece. He even sent his son and daughter to Sri Lanka as Buddhist missionaries. Ashoka’s efforts are widely regarded as instrumental to the rapid growth of Buddhism from a small regional sect into an international religious movement.

Alfred the Great Unified the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms and Defended Against the Vikings

When the Anglo-Saxon King Alfred the Great became ruler of the Saxon kingdom of Wessex in 871 CE, he immediately faced a dire military threat. For decades prior to Alfred’s birth, Vikings from Denmark had been raiding Anglo-Saxon settlements along the coast of what is now England, and as young Alfred grew up, the Vikings began attacking farther inland and establishing permanent Danish settlements. By the time Alfred became king of Wessex, his was the only Anglo-Saxon kingdom that had not been taken over by the Vikings. Over the course of his reign, Alfred mounted a courageous defense against the Danes, which culminated in a historic victory at the Battle of Edington in 878 CE. Following the battle, Alfred was able to establish an uneasy peace with the Vikings and significantly reduce the threat they posed. This feat led Alfred to be universally recognized as the ruler of all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, laying the foundation for a unified England. He remains the only ruler to officially receive the moniker “the Great” in the history of the British monarchy.

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Catherine the Great Overthrew Her Own Husband to Become Empress of Russia

Though she’s now known as one of the most influential leaders in Russian history, Catherine the Great arrived in Russia as an outsider — a Prussian princess from a struggling noble family who had little knowledge of Russian culture and didn’t even speak the language. Catherine came to Russia in 1744 to marry Grand Duke Peter, the grandson of Peter the Great (another Russian “great”) and the heir to the Russian throne. But finding her marriage tense and tumultuous, Catherine survived by teaching herself the Russian language and quickly befriending influential figures at court. When Peter ascended to the throne as Tsar Peter III, Catherine used her popularity among the Russian nobility and military to stage a coup d’etat, overthrowing her husband and taking his place on the throne. Shortly afterward, Peter III was assassinated, leaving Catherine free to rule Russia uncontested — which she did from 1762 to 1796. During her 34-year reign, she expanded the size of Russia’s empire, implemented many domestic reforms, and championed Enlightenment ideals, leading to a flourishing of Russian art and culture.

5 Strange Traditions of the British Monarchy

Swan-upping in 1951

Author Tony Dunnell

June 12, 2023

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Britain is a nation of many strange old traditions, from cheese rolling and wife carrying to mayor weighing and possibly the world’s most brutal ball game. Then there’s the British royal family, an almost endless source of quirky behavior and bizarre rituals. Some of these are well known, at least among Brits, such as the use of the majestic plural, better known as the “royal we” (Queen Elizabeth II often used “we” to refer to herself), and the monarch’s custom of having two birthdays. Other odd traditions of the British royals are less well known, despite having existed for centuries. Here are some of the strangest, involving everything from swans to ravens to parliamentary hostages.

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Swans Are Ceremonially Counted on the River Thames

Since medieval times, the British monarch has had certain rights when it comes to the country’s swans. “The king has the right to claim any swan swimming in open waters, unmarked, if he so wishes,” explained David Barber, who served as Queen Elizabeth II’s swan marker (an actual position in the royal household that dates back to the 12th century). To this day, an annual census of the swans takes place on a stretch of the River Thames. The five-day journey upriver, known as “swan upping,” features a fleet of traditional rowing skiffs, led by the swan marker. The royals once considered swans a delicacy, but swan upping is now focused on conservation and education rather than any culinary considerations.

A Member of Parliament Is Taken Hostage When the Monarch Visits

Back in the 17th century, King Charles I had a contentious relationship with Parliament. (It didn’t end well for Charles, who was executed for high treason in 1649.) As the story goes, the king feared for his own safety every time he visited the legislative houses, and so he decided to take a hostage who would be held at Buckingham Palace as insurance until his safe return. The tradition has continued to the present day. Every year, when the monarch goes to the State Opening of Parliament, a member of Parliament is symbolically held hostage at the palace — probably being served copious amounts of tea and scones — until the king or queen returns.

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Sheriffs Are Appointed By Pricking Parchment With a Sewing Needle

Apart from the crown itself, the oldest secular office in the United Kingdom is the Office of High Sheriff, which has existed for more than 1,000 years. These sheriffs, or “shire-reeves,” were appointed each year by the monarch to maintain law and order within a shire, or county. For centuries, these appointments have been marked on a parchment roll in an unusual fashion. Rather than use a pen or even a quill, the monarch instead pricks the parchment using a bodkin, a silver needle normally used for hand-sewing. The practice is often said to have begun with Queen Elizabeth I, who supposedly chose to perforate the parchment while embroidering in the garden, simply because it was easier than using a pen. But this is a colorful myth, as a “pricked” sheriffs’ roll exists from the reign of Elizabeth’s grandfather, Henry VII. Pricking was likely favored for practical reasons: A pen mark could easily be erased with a knife, but a hole was far more difficult to hide or repair without someone noticing.

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Six Ravens Must Reside in the Tower of London to Protect Britain

According to British legend, both crown and country will fall if the Tower of London’s resident ravens ever leave their post. Various stories exist to explain this royal tradition, but the most pervasive legend comes from the 17th century and the reign of Charles II. It is said that the royal astronomer, John Flamsteed, complained about the ravens interfering with his observatory work, prompting the king to order their elimination. But Charles was warned that should the ravens leave, a “great disaster” would befall the nation. Heeding this advice, the king decreed that ravens should be kept at the tower at all times. During World War II, the number of resident ravens decreased to just one, and when the war was over officials ordered that their numbers be increased once again to six.

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The Duke of Wellington's Rent Is the French Flag

Every year since 1817, the presiding Duke of Wellington pays a visit to the king or queen to pay his rent. But instead of money, the duke presents the monarch with the tricolor flag of France. This strange tradition came about following the heroic efforts of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. Wellington’s leadership was vital in the pivotal victory against Napoleon Bonaparte’s French army, in a battle that marked the end of the Napoleonic Wars. For his efforts, Wellington was gifted Stratfield Saye House, a country estate in Hampshire. To this day, the duke continues to pay his symbolic annual rent of one French flag — a copy of the tricolor captured at Waterloo. In theory, the duke and his family could be ignominiously kicked out of their property should the rent not be paid. For this reason, a spare copy of the flag is kept at Stratfield Saye, just in case anything goes awry.

6 Surprising Facts About Attila and the Huns

Illustration of Attila the Hun

Author Michael Nordine

June 7, 2023

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More than 1,500 years after his death, Attila the Hun remains one of the most fear-inducing figures in history. He and his nomadic empire spent decades terrorizing and conquering Europe on horseback, so much so that he’s still remembered all across the continent — sometimes with reverence, sometimes with hatred. But many details of his life are unclear, and some that have been reliably recorded aren’t as widely known as the apocryphal legends about him. Here are five such facts about Attila and his empire.

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No One Knows Where the Huns Came From

The Huns were among the most feared people in the world, as well as some of the least understood. That’s exemplified by the fact that the tribe’s precise origins remain unknown to this day. They were nomads, after all, and while one popular theory posits that their roots can be traced back to the Xiongnu people of ancient Mongolia, it’s impossible to confirm. Even the etymology of the Huns’ name is disputed, with some historians ascribing it to the old Turkic word for “ferocious”; others thinking it comes from the Persian term hūnarā, meaning “skilled”; and others still of the belief that it’s derived from the Ongi River in Mongolia, which could possibly have been the Huns’ ancestral homeland.

They Once Launched an Invasion to Win Attila Another Wife

Attila had many wives — the precise number is unknown — the last of whom was Ildico, whom he married just hours before dying of a nosebleed. His courtships weren’t all traditional, as you might imagine, and he even launched one of his many military campaigns for the explicit purpose of winning himself a wife. That would be Justa Grata Honoria, the sister of Roman Emperor Valentinian III, who was unhappy at having her own hand in marriage promised to a Roman senator and sought Attila’s help in getting out of said engagement. Because she sent him not only a letter but her ring, Attila interpreted her actions as not just a plea for help but a marriage proposal. He accepted this supposed proposal, demanding half of the Western Empire as his dowry. Valentinian was furious and had to be persuaded to merely exile Honoria rather than execute her.

Attila had been hoping to invade Roman territory for some time, and Honoria’s letter offered the pretext he needed. Although he was unsuccessful in winning her hand in marriage and never conquered Rome, it wasn’t due to defeat on the battlefield.

Attila Almost Sacked Rome Until a Meeting With the Pope Changed His Mind

The Huns proved troublesome for all of Europe, but they especially disliked the Romans. Attila and his army invaded Italy in 452 CE, sacking cities such as Aquileia en route to Rome. Upon his arrival in the capital, three men were sent to negotiate with the Hunnish king: Gennadius Avienus, Memmius Aemilius Trygetius, and, most significantly, Pope Leo I. Though the details of their meeting are lost to history, what is known is that Attila immediately withdrew.
There are theories, of course. Some believe Attila was dissuaded by his own men, who reminded him that Visigothic King Alaric died shortly after sacking Rome 40 years earlier, while others contend that Attila was swayed by this speech from the pope:

"The people of Rome, once conquerors of the world, now kneel conquered. We pray for mercy and deliverance. O Attila, you could have no greater glory than to see suppliant at your feet this people before whom once all peoples and kings lay suppliant. You have subdued, O Attila, the whole circle of the lands granted to the Romans. Now we pray that you, who have conquered others, should conquer yourself. The people have felt your scourge. Now they would feel your mercy."

Whatever the case, Attila left Rome shortly after the meeting. Nearly 1,000 years later, their encounter became the subject of Raphael’s fresco “The Meeting of Leo the Great and Attila,” which was completed in 1514 and is now part of the Vatican’s collection.

The Huns Only Lost One Battle During Attila’s Reign

Attila’s military prowess is hard to overstate, as is the terror he inspired in his enemies. No statistic speaks to this quite like the fact that he suffered just one defeat as leader of the Huns, during the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains on June 20, 451 CE. With 200,000 soldiers at his back during the Huns’ invasion of Gaul, Attila wreaked so much havoc that General Flavius Aetius of Rome took the desperate measure of forming an alliance with King Theodoric I of the Visigoths. Only their combined forces were able to best Attila on the battlefield, though Theodoric did not survive — he was one of the “massive number of casualties,” which had the unexpected effect of making his forces fight even harder. “When first light arrived” the following morning, according to historian Paul K. Davis, “both sides were able to view the carnage of the previous day’s fighting and neither seemed eager to renew it.” Victory was short-lived, with both Attila and Aetius dying within the next three years — the latter at the hands of Roman Emperor Valentinian himself.

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Attila Bore No Relation to Genghis Khan

A quick search of the two leaders’ names will result in any number of articles about their many differences, all of which stem from a tendency to conflate the two of them. It’s easy to understand why, as both led nomadic empires that terrorized Europe via brutal warfare and are either lionized or vilified depending on whom you ask. But they weren’t related in any way; in fact, Attila was born sometime around 406 CE and Genghis was not born until 1162 — more than 700 years after the former’s death. Genghis was ultimately much more successful as a conqueror, with his Mongol Empire becoming the largest contiguous land empire in history. Attila might not have been his ancestor, but he probably still would have been impressed by — and perhaps even a little envious of — Genghis’ skill at warfare.

Attila’s Empire Fell Apart Soon After His Death

Following Attila’s strange demise — reportedly due to a nosebleed on his wedding night — his empire was meant to be divided equally among his sons Dengizich, Ellac, and Ernakh. They couldn’t coexist peacefully, however — like father, like sons — and the civil war that followed allowed their vassals to rise up against them. The first was Ardaric, king of the Gepidae, who defeated the Huns at the Battle of Nedao in 454 CE. (Prior to this rebellion, Ardaric was “famed for his loyalty and wisdom” and Attila “prized him above all the other chieftains.”) Ellac was slain in that battle, and it’s thought that what remained of his brothers’ empire was gone within a year or two — the Huns aren’t mentioned in most historical sources after 469 CE.

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6 Tricks Grocery Stores Use To Influence What You Buy

Born Between 1941-1969? Take Advantage of These 10 Benefits

Do You Know What the “P” in “P.M.” Stands For?

Anne Boleyn (queen consort: 1533-1536)

Jane Seymour (queen consort: 1536-1537)

Anne of Cleves (queen consort: 1540)

Catherine Howard (queen consort: 1540-1542)

Catherine Parr (queen consort: 1543-1547)

5 Ways Julius Caesar Changed the World

Author Nicole Villeneuve

His Death Triggered the Rise of the Roman Empire

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He Spread Roman Influence Throughout Europe

He Introduced the 365-Day Calendar

He Changed Political Strategy

He Inspired a Shakespeare Play

5 Myths About the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra

Author Kristina Wright

Myth: Cleopatra Was Ethnically Egyptian

Myth: Cleopatra Wasn’t Prepared to Be Queen

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Myth: Cleopatra Was Known for Her Beauty

Myth: Cleopatra Wasn’t a Good Leader

Myth: A Brokenhearted Cleopatra Died By Snakebite

5 Facts About England’s Elizabethan Era

Author Adam Levine

Elizabeth’s Coronation Date Was Chosen Based on Astrology

The Era Marked the Beginning of British Colonialism in the New World

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