Where Did the QWERTY Keyboard Layout Come From?

1950s typewriter keys

Author Tony Dunnell

January 15, 2025

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The QWERTY keyboard layout is so common that most of us never stop to question its unusual arrangement of letters. But when we do look down at our keyboards, we might find ourselves struggling to understand the logic behind the layout: Why does the top row begin with the letters Q, W, E, R, T, Y?

Found on nearly every computer, laptop, and smartphone worldwide (at least in countries that use a Latin-script alphabet), this seemingly random configuration of keys has an interesting history — though perhaps not the one most people have been led to believe.

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The Rise of the Typewriter

During the 19th century, inventors came up with various kinds of machines designed to type out letters. Most of these machines, however, were large and cumbersome, often resembling pianos in size and shape. In some cases, they proved highly valuable to people with visual impairments, but for general use they were inefficient, being much slower than simple handwriting.

Enter Christopher Latham Sholes, an American inventor who, in 1866, was working alongside Carlos Glidden on developing a machine for numbering book pages. Sholes was inspired to build a machine that could print words as well as numbers, and he and Glidden soon received a patent for their somewhat ungainly prototype. The contraption had a row of alphabetized keys that, when struck, swung little hammers with corresponding letters embossed in their heads. The keys, in turn, struck an inked ribbon to apply the printed letters to a sheet of paper. It was far from the perfect solution, however, so Sholes persevered.

Five years later, in 1872, Sholes and his associates produced the first-ever practical typewriter. Rather than an alphabetized row of keys, this new typewriter featured a four-row layout with what was then a QWE.TY keyboard (with a period where the R is today). In 1873, Sholes sold the manufacturing rights to the Remington Arms Company, which further developed the machine. It was marketed as the Remington Typewriter — complete with the slightly altered QWERTY key layout. It became the first commercially successful typewriter, and in so doing made the QWERTY keyboard the industry standard.

Why QWERTY?

Here’s where things get a little foggy. An often-repeated explanation for the QWERTY keyboard layout is that it was designed by Sholes to slow typists down in order to prevent typewriters from jamming. If you’ve ever used an old-fashioned typewriter, you might have noticed how easy it is to strike letters in quick succession, or simultaneously, which can cause the type bars to become stuck together.

But would Sholes really have sabotaged his own keyboard layout to hamper the speed of operators? In reality, there is little to no hard evidence of any deliberate slowdown. And the patent that first mentions the QWERTY layout contains no direct mention of why the keys were placed in such a manner. If it was indeed designed to cause fewer jams, this feature would likely have been a primary attribute of the patent. What’s more, at the time that Sholes patented the QWERTY layout, there were no “touch typists,” so no one was typing particularly quickly, let alone speed-typing.

So, why did QWERTY become standard? One convincing and particularly thorough answer comes from Kyoto University researchers Koichi Yasuoka and Motoko Yasuoka. In their 2010 paper “On the Prehistory of QWERTY,” the researchers conclude that the mechanics of the typewriter did not influence the keyboard design. Instead, the QWERTY system was a rather circuitous result of how the first typewriters were being used.

Among the most prominent early adopters of early typewriters were telegraph operators, whose priority was to quickly transcribe messages. These operators found an alphabetical keyboard arrangement to be confusing and inefficient for translating morse code. The Kyoto paper suggests the QWERTY keyboard evolved over several years as a direct result of the input provided by these telegraph operators. According to the researchers, “The keyboard arrangement was incidentally changed into QWERTY, first to receive telegraphs, then to thrash out a compromise between inventors and producers, and at last to evade old patents.”

In other words, QWERTY came about through a combination of factors. There was direct input from telegraph operators, as well as compromises made between inventors and producers — practical changes made by the manufacturers who actually had to mass produce the product. (The keyboard layout on Scholes’ original prototype, for example, was altered by the mechanics at Remington.) And then there were old patents to contend with. In 1886, a new company called Wyckoff, Seamans & Benedict (WS&B) released the Remington Standard Type-Writer No. 2. To avoid existing keyboard layout patents, the company slightly altered the design, placing M next to N and swapping around C and X. This became the QWERTY format keyboard we use today.

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The Persistence of an Imperfect Design

While the precise intentions behind Sholes’ QWERTY design are at least partially lost to history, there is undoubtedly a strong argument against the popular belief that it was designed to slow typists down.

What we know for sure is that the QWERTY layout is remarkable for its staying power. Despite the development of potentially more efficient keyboard layouts — most prominently the Dvorak layout, designed in the 1930s, which is supposed to be faster and more comfortable — QWERTY has remained the global standard. By the time alternative layouts were proposed, millions of people had already learned to type on QWERTY keyboards, and switching would have required massive retraining efforts for typists, not to mention a lot of grumbling from the general public.

So, for now at least, QWERTY is very much here to stay — at least on laptops and PCs. Researchers at the University of St Andrews in Scotland have developed a split-screen keyboard they claim can increase typing speeds for touchscreen users who type with their thumbs. Known as KALQ (the letters at the bottom right of that keyboard), its layout is a radical departure from the QWERTY system, which has been unchanged for about a century and a half. Will KALQ gain a foothold? Only time, and more typing, will tell.

What Was George Washington’s Inauguration Like?

Inauguration of George Washington, 1789

Author Timothy Ott

January 7, 2025

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Every four years, a new United States presidential administration commences with an inauguration ceremony on the western front of the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. Held on January 20, or January 21 if the traditional date falls on a Sunday, the inauguration begins around noon with the vice president-elect reciting the oath of office.

That’s followed by the only constitutionally mandated component of the inauguration, the president’s oath of office, typically administered by the chief justice of the United States. The president-elect repeats the words: “I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of president of the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States.”

The president then delivers their inaugural address, followed by a luncheon in the Capitol’s Statuary Hall, and a parade that takes the chief executive and their party to the White House. The evening’s events include varying numbers of official and unofficial balls, held in hotels and government buildings throughout the city.

While the roots of these traditions go back to the very first U.S. presidential inauguration — that of George Washington in 1789 — the events of that particular day were noticeably different from what transpires now. In fact, the ceremonies surrounding this landmark moment of American history weren’t even formalized until just a few days before it all unfolded.

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A Military Procession Escorted George Washington to New York City

Following a week’s journey from his beloved Virginia plantation Mount Vernon, which saw him feted by residents of every town he passed through, Washington arrived at his new home in what was then the federal capital, New York City, on April 23, 1789. His wife, Martha Washington, who was still tending to business at Mount Vernon, did not join him for another month.

With the president’s safety secured, a joint committee of the Senate and House of Representatives met to hammer out details of where the inauguration would take place, who would administer the oath of office, and seating arrangements. On April 25, Congress adopted the committee’s recommendations for ceremonies to be held five days later.

At sunrise on the determined day of April 30, a military salute was discharged at Fort George near the southern tip of Manhattan. At 9 a.m., church bells sounded throughout the city for approximately half an hour, summoning their congregants for a morning service.

Meanwhile, Washington, who’d had barely any downtime since adjusting to his accommodations in a three-story brick building on Cherry Street, dressed in a Connecticut-made brown broadcloth suit, adorned with gilt buttons engraved with the arms of the United States, as he awaited the military procession that would escort him to Federal Hall on Wall Street.

The escorts arrived around noon and set off with the president in his coach about half an hour later. Numbering some 500 men in total, the procession included two companies of grenadiers, a company of light infantry, members of the Senate and House committees, and the Spanish and French ministers.

Within 200 yards of Federal Hall, the procession split into lines on either side of the street, its participants presenting arms and lowering flags as Washington and his party passed between them on foot and entered the federal building.

Inside the Senate Chamber, Washington was greeted by his vice president, John Adams, and members of both the Senate and House of Representatives. At about 2 p.m., Adams informed Washington that it was time to take the oath of office, and the gathered congressmen escorted the president to a canopy-covered balcony decorated with red and white curtains.

Before a crowd of spectators gathered on the streets below, and on the roofs and balconies of neighboring buildings, Washington placed his right hand on an open Bible supplied by St. John’s Masonic Lodge of New York and repeated the oath of office administered by the chancellor of New York, Robert R. Livingston. After the president finished by kissing the Bible, Chancellor Livingston turned to the crowd and ignited a celebratory roar by proclaiming, “It is done; long live George Washington, president of the United States.”

Washington Delivered a Low-Key but “Touching” Address

With all elected representatives back in the Senate Chamber, Washington stood before them to read the nation's first presidential address. The speech was originally written with the help of his aide David Humphreys, but Washington ultimately eschewed that lengthy draft in favor of a far shorter version crafted by James Madison.

With his usual self-effacing manner, the president revealed his feelings of inadequacy over his ability to handle the role of president, and requested no payment for his services. Still, he left no doubt about his grasp of the tasks that faced the country in the days to come: "The preservation of the sacred fire of liberty and the destiny of the republican model of government are justly considered as deeply and perhaps finally staked on the experiment entrusted to the hands of the American people," he said.

To the distinguished figures present, the man of the moment seemed surprisingly nervous. Massachusetts Representative Fisher Ames noted the president's manner as "grave, almost to sadness; his modesty, actually shaking; his voice deep, a little tremulous, and so low as to call for close attention." But the congressman also described it as a "very touching scene," the address producing "emotions of the most affecting kind upon the members."

Afterward, Washington, Adams, and the assembled congressmen proceeded to St. Paul's Chapel for a service overseen by Reverend Samuel Provoost, the episcopal bishop of New York and chaplain to the Senate.

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The Celebrations Concluded With Fireworks Over Manhattan

After dining alone at the Presidential Mansion, Washington again journeyed out to watch a show of fireworks from the homes of Chancellor Livingston and his old Revolutionary War comrade Henry Knox. Boston merchant John May described the fireworks over Lower Manhattan as "well executed" and "greeted with tumultuous applause," but he seemed especially impressed by the lighting displays of various buildings.

"The Spanish Ambassador's house was illuminated so as to represent Wisdom, Justice, Fortitude, Sun, Moon, Stars, Spanish Arms, etc.," May wrote in a letter the following day. "Federal Hall also presented a fine appearance. The likeness of our Hero [Washington], illuminated, was presented in the window of a house, at a little distance. The best likeness I have yet seen of him, so much like him that one could hardly distinguish it from life — excepting for the situation, over a beer-house, a place he never frequents."

At about 10 p.m., the tired president retreated to his carriage in an attempt to return to his new home. However, the crowded streets forced him to abandon his ride and complete his task on foot, a sure sign that there would be little time to rest with the world watching his every move as the first president of the United States of America.

Meet America’s Gilded Age ‘Dollar Princesses’

Jennie Churchill, 1888

Author Kristina Wright

January 7, 2025

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The turn of the 20th century marked a time of rapid industrialization and wealth accumulation in the U.S., now known as the Gilded Age. A unique social phenomenon emerged during this era as wealthy American heiresses married into aristocratic British families. The brides brought their extensive fortunes to England’s cash-strapped noble families in exchange for coveted British titles and social status. The term “dollar princesses” captures the transactional nature of these unions, which often symbolized the blending of New World wealth with Old World prestige.

The concept of dollar princesses came out of the economic realities of the period. Many British noble families had inherited land-rich but cash-poor estates and struggled to maintain their ancestral homes in the face of declining agricultural incomes and the increasing costs of managing these vast properties. Meanwhile, newly wealthy American industrialists and financiers were looking to elevate their social standing in the U.S. and abroad — and saw their unmarried daughters as the perfect conduit for forming beneficial alliances.

These marriages were not just personal but also highly strategic, often negotiated with the same acumen as a business deal — not unlike the arranged marriages between royal families. Traditional introductions were made at social events between like-minded families, and American debutants could be presented at court — for a price — making it more likely for them to find suitable husbands. A publication called Titled Americans announced heiresses who had married into the aristocracy and listed eligible British bachelors who might be amenable to marrying their own dollar princesses. The 1915 edition reported that 454 American heiresses had married into European noble families between 1870 and 1914.

The dollar princesses of the Gilded Age represent a fascinating intersection of extravagant wealth, political ambition, and cultural exchange. While their marriages were often arranged with pragmatic goals in mind, many of these women went on to leave significant legacies in philanthropy, politics, and society. Here are some of the most notable dollar princesses of the era.

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Consuelo Vanderbilt

Perhaps the most famous dollar princess, Consuelo Vanderbilt was born into the staggeringly wealthy Vanderbilt family. When Consuelo married Charles Spencer-Churchill, 9th Duke of Marlborough, in 1895, her father, railroad tycoon William Kissam Vanderbilt, signed an agreement providing a dowry of $1.6 million (equivalent to around $60 million today), as well as an income of $2 million in stocks. The match was arranged by Consuelo’s Southern belle mother, Alva Vanderbilt, as a way of securing the family’s place in society. Consuelo was vehemently opposed to the union and the duke was no more enamored of her, telling Consuelo after their wedding that he was in love with another woman.

Despite her unhappy marriage, Consuelo gained a prominent place in British society as the Duchess of Marlborough and became a supporter of women’s suffrage. After living apart for years, the couple divorced in 1921, and Consuelo married the love of her life, French aviator Jacques Balsan.

Jennie Jerome

Jennie Jerome, the daughter of American financier Leonard Jerome, became Lady Randolph Churchill when she married Lord Randolph Churchill in 1874. While the Churchills were initially resistant to the match, Jerome’s $250,000 dowry, worth more than $9 million today, convinced them to reconsider.

With her striking beauty and sharp wit, Jennie played an influential role in her husband’s political career. She was also involved in the founding of the Primrose League, a sociopolitical organization for men and women involved in the Conservative Party. Though she married two more times following Randolph’s death in 1895, Jennie had two sons from her first marriage — one of whom was Winston Churchill, the future British prime minister.

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Mary Leiter

Mary Leiter’s 1895 marriage to George Curzon, who later served as the viceroy of India, underscores the influence of dollar princesses in international diplomacy. As the daughter of Chicago millionaire Levi Leiter and heiress to the Marshall Field fortune, Mary brought a substantial dowry that helped the Curzon family preserve their land holdings and social standing.

Mary’s obituary noted she was held in high esteem and her success in the role of diplomat’s wife was crucial to helping her husband advance in his political career. In 1898, Mary was given the highest official title that any American woman held in the British Empire: the vicereine of India.

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Nancy Astor

Nancy Langhorne, the daughter of a railroad businessman, defied all expectations to become the first woman to sit in the British Parliament. After a brief, turbulent marriage that ended in divorce, Nancy moved to London, where the glamorous American heiress attracted the attention of eligible British bachelors. Among her potential suitors was American expatriate Waldorf Astor, the son of American-born Viscount William Waldorf Astor, a prominent hotelier and owner of The Independent newspaper. Nancy and Waldorf connected over their shared interests and American heritage and were married six months after their whirlwind courtship began.

With her sharp political instincts and charismatic personality, Nancy became a distinctive presence among British society. When her husband was elevated to the House of Lords, Nancy successfully ran for his vacant seat in the House of Commons as a Conservative Party candidate. Her tenure as an MP was defined by her advocacy for women’s rights and social reform.

Helena Zimmerman

Helena Zimmerman, the daughter and sole heir of Pittsburgh industrialist Eugene Zimmerman, married William Angus Drogo “Kim” Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester, in 1900. Like many unions of the era, their marriage was more of a financial arrangement than a romantic union. Helena’s substantial dowry rescued the nearly bankrupt duke from financial ruin, allowing him to maintain his estates and lifestyle. However, the duke’s extravagant spending led to mounting debts, while his marital infidelities added a personal strain to their relationship.

Eugene Zimmerman ensured his daughter’s financial security by providing her with a fixed allowance, but stipulated that her husband would inherit nothing after his death in 1915. The couple’s tumultuous marriage ultimately ended in divorce in 1931. Helena remarried in 1937, becoming the wife of Arthur George Keith-Falconer, 10th Earl of Kintore, and they remained together until his death in 1966.

How Were the Egyptian Pyramids Built?

Engraving of the Pyramids of Giza

Author Tony Dunnell

January 7, 2025

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Ancient Egypt was home to more than 100 pyramids, many of which still stand today. One of the oldest monumental pyramids in Egypt, the Step Pyramid of Djoser, was built sometime between 2667 BCE and 2648 BCE and began a period of pyramid construction lasting more than a thousand years. The most famous monuments are found at the Giza complex, home to the Great Pyramid, the Pyramid of Khafre, and the Pyramid of Menkaure, all built during the Fourth Dynasty around 2600 to 2500 BCE — the golden age of ancient Egypt.

The Egyptian pyramids stand as one of humanity’s most remarkable architectural achievements, and their incredible precision and massive scale have confounded researchers for centuries. Despite numerous theories and extensive archaeological research, the exact methods of their construction remain a subject of scholarly debate. How did ancient Egyptians erect pyramids using millions of massive blocks weighing as much as 2.5 tons each? And how, more specifically, did they move those blocks up the superstructure?

To this day, there is no known historical or archaeological evidence that resolves the question definitively. While popular speculation often veers into fantastical explanations — yes, including aliens — serious historians and archaeologists have given much thought as to how these monumental structures might have been erected using the technological capabilities of the time. Here are three of the most likely construction theories.

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The Herodotus Machine

The first historical account of the construction of the pyramids came from the ancient Greek historian Herodotus in the fifth century BCE. In his Histories, he wrote that the Great Pyramid took 20 years to build and demanded the labor of 100,000 people. Herodotus also wrote that after laying the stones for the base, workers “raised the remaining stones to their places by means of machines formed of short wooden planks. The first machine raised them from the ground to the top of the first step. On this there was another machine, which received the stone upon its arrival and conveyed it to the second step,” and so on.

These “Herodotus Machines,” as they later became known, are speculated to have used a system of levers or ropes (or both) to lift blocks incrementally between levels of the pyramid. Egyptian priests told Herodotus about this system — but it’s important to note that this was a long time after the construction of the Great Pyramid, so neither the priests nor Herodotus were actual eyewitnesses to its construction. It is certainly feasible, however, that the machines he described may have been used, either by themselves or, more likely, in conjunction with other methods.

The External Ramp Theory

Archaeologists generally agree that a system of ramps must have been used, in some form or another, to drag the millions of blocks into their positions in the various pyramids. While there’s no remaining physical evidence of external ramps at the Great Pyramid, traces can be seen around some of the other Old Kingdom structures. One initial theory posited the use of a single, linear ramp built on one side of the pyramid, which would have been gradually raised as the pyramid progressed. But, considering that an 8% slope is about the maximum possible slope for moving such heavy blocks, a ramp such as this would have needed to be about a mile long to reach the top of the pyramid. That would mean constructing the ramp would have been as much of a task as building the pyramid itself, making the theory unlikely, especially for larger structures such as the Great Pyramid.

There are a few other ramp theories, however. One proposes that a series of switchback, or staircase, ramps could have been built, zigzagging up just one face of the pyramid. Traces of these have been found at the Sinki, Meidum, Giza, Abu Ghurob, and Lisht pyramids. Other archaeologists have speculated that a spiraling ramp could have been used, which would have wrapped around the entire pyramid. This is a popular theory, although it does have its problems. As with the straight or linear ramp, this ramp would potentially have been a mile long if it was used to build the Great Pyramid, making it in itself a massive construction project. It’s also not clear how workers could have maneuvered 2.5-ton blocks around the corners of the ramp. Archaeologist Mark Lehner did make a practical demonstration of how this could be done, but it was on a far, far smaller pyramid.

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The Internal Ramp Theory

In 2007, the French architect Jean-Pierre Houdin offered a new theory to solve the mystery of how Egypt’s Great Pyramid was built. Using archaeological research combined with 3D computer modeling, he argued that the Egyptians used an internal — rather than external — system of ramps to build the pyramid. Workers, he theorized, used an outer ramp to build the first 141 feet, then constructed a spiraling inner ramp to carry stones to the apex of the 482-foot-tall pyramid. Using this technique, Houdin argued, the pyramid could have been built by around 4,000 people instead of 100,000, as other theories suggest.

The internal ramp theory was met with much intrigue, with some archaeologists skeptical and others arguing that it’s as valid as any other concept. Interestingly, Houdin’s proposal would explain why no evidence of ramps has been found at the Great Pyramid: They could be still there, hidden inside the structure. He and his team continue to work on the hypothesis, in search of definitive evidence of internal ramp structures with the help of 3D scanning technology.

Whether concrete proof will ever be found to support one particular theory is yet to be seen. It’s entirely possible, of course, that the Egyptians utilized various construction techniques when building the pyramids, combining levers and both external and internal ramps — as well as other possible methods — to overcome whatever challenges came their way.

What Did People Do Before Eyeglasses?

Old spectacles on a book

Author Timothy Ott

December 20, 2024

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Somewhere in the vicinity of Pisa, Italy, around 1286, an unknown craftsman fastened two glass lenses to a frame likely made of wood or bone to create the first eyeglasses.

With approximately two out of three adults in the United States today requiring some form of visual aid, it’s safe to say that invention has been well received. But even though 1286 is well before any of us first discovered the splendor of improved eyesight, it’s relatively recent in the larger picture of human existence. So how did people with subpar vision get by before there was a convenient LensCrafters to pop into?

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There’s not much historical evidence explaining how our prehistoric ancestors fared in the absence of visual aids, so we’re left to use some combination of deduction and common sense to determine how, say, a sight-impaired individual would keep up with the pack in a group of hunter-gatherers.

A person with imperfect vision could still be useful to a group simply because sharp eyesight to read signs, documents, and the like wasn’t necessary in prehistoric times. As civilization progressed, those with visual impairments could even find their condition produced certain advantages. A myopic (nearsighted) person, for example, could find themselves steered toward a craftsman role for their ability to focus on detail.

That said, humankind used visual aids for many centuries before the first eyeglasses appeared in the Middle Ages. Here are a few of the tools that helped those dealing with hyperopia (farsightedness) and other sight-related challenges.

Early Lenses

Archaeological digs in the eastern Mediterranean area have uncovered the existence of plano-convex lenses (flat on one side and rounded on the other) made of glass and rock crystal that date back to the Bronze Age. The most well known example is the Nimrud lens, which was found in the remains of an Assyrian palace in modern-day Iraq. While it’s unknown what these lenses were used for, some of them magnify objects between seven and nine times, rendering them useful for work on items in close quarters.

In his book Renaissance Vision From Spectacles to Telescopes, Vincent Ilardi suggests that the presence of holes or “resting points” on some of these lenses indicates they may have been propped up in a way that allowed artisans to use their hands. Additionally, he offers the discovery of a 5,300-year-old Egyptian ivory knife handle with carved microscopic figures as evidence that ancient Egyptians had a means for providing vision enhancements.

These weren’t the only civilizations to discover uses for lenses. A 2.3-gram convex crystal lens was found in the tomb of a son of Chinese Emperor Liu Xiu, who lived in the first century CE. Its creation was fostered by the optical studies published centuries earlier by Chinese scholars, including the philosopher Mozi and King Liú Ān.

Green Gemstones

The ancient Romans seemed to believe that emeralds and other green gemstones could be used as a means for soothing the eyes and possibly providing visual aid. One famous example appears in Pliny the Elder's Natural History, where the author notes how Emperor Nero watched a gladiatorial event with the assistance of a smaragdus — an emerald or similar gem. However, historians largely believe that the stone may not have magnified the spectacle so much as it helped to block the glare of the sun.

Water Globes

In his first volume of Naturales Quaestiones (Natural Questions), the Roman philosopher Seneca described the magnifying effect of water in glass: “Letters, however small and dim, are comparatively large and distinct when seen through a glass globe filled with water.” His contemporary Pliny the Elder also noted the lenslike qualities that resulted from combining these elements, although his observation was related to the potential for flammability when focusing the sun's rays through a glass water vessel. While the result may have been satisfactory, Seneca's lack of follow-up thoughts suggest that this particular method of magnification likely wasn't widely used.

Mirrors

In the same sentence describing the magnification qualities of the water vessels, Seneca wrote, "I have already said there are mirrors which increase every object they reflect." Indeed, concave metal, glass, or crystal mirrors could be used to magnify smaller texts for those with vision problems. As noted by Ilardi in Renaissance Vision From Spectacles to Telescopes, French author Jean de Meun wrote of the efficacy of this tool in the late-13th-century poem “Le Roman de la Rose,” although there aren’t many other documented uses of mirrors for this purpose.

Reading Stones

A major development in the area of visual tools came with the invention of reading stones. Often credited to ninth-century Andalusian scholar Abbas ibn Firnas, the concept of curved glass surfaces being used to magnify print was discussed at length in Arab mathematician Ibn al-Haytham's 1021 Book of Optics, which later received a wider audience with its translation to Latin.

Typically made from quartz, rock crystal, and especially beryl, reading stones were fashioned in a plano-convex shape, with the flat side against the page of a book and the rounded top providing a clear view of the lettering below. Initially used to assist the elderly with faltering vision, the stones became popular among younger readers as well, especially as beryl was said to possess magic and healing powers.

One surviving example of such reading stones are the 11th- to 12th-century Visby lenses discovered in Gotland, Sweden, in 1999. Along with providing excellent magnification of tiny text, many of these quartz lenses are mounted in silver, suggesting a decorative purpose as well.

It's unknown if the Visby lenses were the work of a local professional or somehow made their way from Muslim regions where other reading stones first appeared. Regardless, the quality of the images generated by these artifacts, and the craftsmanship that went into their creation, underscores how people were hardly left grasping in the dark for assistance in the days before eyeglasses became commonplace.

Why Is the Dollar Symbol an ‘S’?

Dollar symbol made from paper

Author Tony Dunnell

December 20, 2024

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The dollar sign, or “$,” is one of the most recognizable currency symbols in the world, instantly understood across languages and cultures. It also transcends currency, having become a widespread symbol in pop culture. Andy Warhol made a whole series of drawings and paintings of the dollar sign in the 1980s, while some modern artists have used the symbol in their own stylized names — think A$AP Rocky, Travi$ Scott, and Ke$ha. It’s also been used as a symbol of greed — critics of large companies might make their point by introducing the dollar sign into the name of a corporation.

Despite the ubiquity of the dollar sign, its origins are surprisingly complex, muddied by a lack of historical record and competing theories. Far from a simple design, the dollar symbol represents a fascinating journey through economic history, global trade, and linguistic evolution.

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Origin Theories

A number of theories exist regarding the origins of the dollar sign. Some have little supporting evidence, but are interesting nonetheless. For example, one hypothesis traces the symbol’s roots to an image of the Pillars of Hercules that appeared on the Spanish coat of arms and national currency. The image showed the two pillars wrapped in S-shaped banners, which, according to the theory, could have evolved in notation to become the dollar sign.

Another, similar theory argues that the symbol came from the Potosí mint in Bolivia, which operated from 1573 to 1825. (The mine at Potosí was once the main source of silver for the Spanish Empire.) The mint used a stamp that featured the letters PTSI (for Potosí) imposed on top of each other, which could have created a symbol similar to the modern dollar sign.

Yet another common theory — and most likely a popular misconception — is that the symbol stands for “United States” and originated from the abbreviation “U.S.,” with the letters superimposed and the “U” becoming stylized over time. The writer and philosopher Ayn Rand seemingly believed this theory and chose to include it in a chapter of her 1957 novel Atlas Shrugged, in which one character asks another what the dollar sign stands for. But Rand, it seems, was wrong. The United States was known as the United Colonies of North America until 1776, and evidence exists that the dollar sign was in use before the United States moniker was born — making the theory seem tenuous at best.

The Spanish Peso

The most widely accepted theory traces the dollar symbol’s origins to the Spanish peso, which all you pirates out there will know as “pieces of eight.” The Spanish peso was a dominant currency in the Americas during the colonial era, and was accepted as the basic unit of value in colonial America during the late 1700s. (The Mexican peso remained an official legal tender in both the U.S. and Canada until the mid-1800s.)

We know from handwritten manuscripts that merchants and traders often abbreviated the peso as “PS.” As time went on, and as the abbreviation became more widespread, the “S” was often written over the “P,” producing an approximation of the “$” symbol. This is now widely regarded as the most likely origin of the dollar sign.

The “$” symbol first appeared in print around 1800. Printed by Binny & Ronaldson — the first permanent type foundry in the United States — the earliest known use of the symbol occurred in a pamphlet titled “Facts Respecting the Bank of North America.” From there, of course, the dollar symbol went from strength to strength, not only in the United States but also in many other parts of the world. Today, it’s used as a currency symbol in more than 20 countries around the globe, including Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Fiji, and Hong Kong.

5 Forms of U.S. Currency That Are No Longer in Use

Close-up of U.S. currency

Author Tony Dunnell

December 20, 2024

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The history of currency in the United States offers a fascinating journey through cultural changes, economic innovation, and shifting monetary policies. Between the colonial era and the mid-20th century, numerous forms of currency emerged that served a particular purpose before ultimately being discontinued. These now-defunct currencies reflect the complex social and political landscapes that shaped America’s financial systems, while at the same time telling stories of expansion, war, innovation, and politics.

Here are five forms of U.S. currency that still exist — and in some cases are worth far more than when they were first issued — but are no longer in common use.

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Pine Tree Shilling

In the early 1650s, the Massachusetts Bay Colony was a commercial success. But it had a fundamental problem: a lack of coin currency, which was a major issue for not only the colony but also the wider New England economy. This forced the colonists to rely on bartering, allowing the British to keep more control. So, the authorities in Boston — which, at the time, had existed for only around 25 years — decided to set up a mint. They began striking silver coinage in denominations of 3 pence, 6 pence, and 1 shilling, most of which were stamped with the year of the mint’s foundation, 1652, and a pine tree (although some bore a willow or oak tree). The currency became collectively known as the pine tree shilling, and was generally accepted throughout the Northeast. It remains arguably the most famous coin from America’s colonial period. Today, authentic pine tree shillings are generally worth between $1,500 and $3,000 each.

Fractional Currency

During the Civil War, widespread hoarding of gold and silver coins created a desperate shortage of small change. To rectify the situation, President Abraham Lincoln signed the Postage Currency Act on July 17, 1862, which introduced fractional currency in the form of “paper coins,” issued in 3-cent, 5-cent, 10-cent, 15-cent, 25-cent, and 50-cent denominations. The small notes were informally known as shinplasters, after the small, square patches of paper that soldiers used as plasters for treating sore legs. Fractional currency went through a number of different issues until production ceased in 1876, when the production and use of coins rebounded.

$500, $1,000, $5,000, and $10,000 Notes

It wasn’t all that long ago that bills far larger than the now-standard $100 were in use in the United States. Currency notes in denominations of $500, $1,000, $5,000, and $10,000 — all of which were last printed in 1945 — were in circulation up until July 14, 1969, when the Department of the Treasury officially discontinued them due to lack of use. And while these notes remain legal tender today, most of them are probably in the hands of private numismatic dealers and collectors. That’s no surprise, as these notes can fetch a pretty price, depending on their age, scarcity, and condition. In 2019, a collection of three of the rarest known U.S. paper bills in existence was estimated at a combined value of around $8 million. The most valuable in the set was a $1,000 bill from 1891 (one of only two known to exist), valued between $2 million and $3 million.

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Gold Certificates

Gold certificates were first issued by the U.S. Treasury in 1865. The certificates, issued in denominations of $10, $20, $50, $100, $500, $1,000, and $10,000, proved ownership of a specific amount of gold — meaning you could deposit gold at the Treasury and receive gold certificates in exchange. They were primarily used for large transactions between banks and government institutions. There was even a $100,000 gold certificate, the highest denomination ever issued by the federal government. Printed in 1934, this hefty note was used as an accounting device between branches of the Federal Reserve and was never circulated publicly. (It was even illegal for a private individual to own a $100,000 certificate.) Then, on April 5, 1933, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt controversially ordered the seizure of the private gold holdings of the American people, and soon after transferred ownership of all monetary gold in the United States to the U.S. Treasury. This prohibition of private gold ownership effectively ended the circulation of gold certificates.

Credit: Khairil Azhar Junos/ Alamy Stock Photo

Hawaii Overprint Notes

During World War II, special currency was printed for use in Hawaii following the attack on Pearl Harbor. With fears that an imminent invasion of Hawaii could follow, the island was placed under martial law and the majority of U.S. dollars were recalled to prevent substantial amounts of money from potentially falling into Japanese hands. The currency was replaced with the Hawaii overprint note, bills designed to be easily identified and declared invalid if the islands were captured by Japanese forces. The bills looked much the same as regular dollar notes, but were overprinted with large “HAWAII” lettering on one side and two smaller overprints on the obverse. After the war, these unique bills were quickly withdrawn from circulation. A recall was issued, but many of the overprint notes were stashed away as souvenirs by soldiers and residents.

5 Essential World War II Novels

“The Naked and the Dead” book

Author Kristina Wright

December 18, 2024

Love it?84

World War II remains one of the most significant and devastating events in human history; it’s the source of countless stories of heroism, tragedy, and resilience. Historical fiction set during this time captures the war’s profound impact, shedding light on both well-known and lesser-known perspectives. These stories are often rooted in personal experiences and not only provide insight into the horrors of warfare, but also serve as a way to process and reflect on the complexities of conflict, the instinct for survival, and the morality of war.

Early works by authors who lived through this turbulent era helped define modern historical fiction, combining intensely personal narratives with philosophical explorations of the human condition. Many of the works on this list have become essential reading in the historical fiction genre and have influenced generations of both readers and writers. Whether you’re drawn to tales of resistance, survival, or love amid chaos, these five historical fiction books about World War II offer powerful narratives that will transport you back to the 1940s.

The Naked and the Dead by Norman Mailer (1948)

Norman Mailer’s debut novel, The Naked and the Dead, is considered one of the greatest American war novels ever written. Published in 1948 when Mailer was just 25 years old, the book offers an unflinchingly realistic portrayal of a U.S. Army platoon during the campaign to retake the fictional Pacific island of Anopopei during World War II. The story follows an ensemble cast of soldiers led by Lieutenant Hearn, who questions the hierarchy of military life, and General Cummings, a ruthless commander who embodies the authoritarian power structure.

Mailer, an Army veteran who served in the Pacific theater of World War II, depicts the psychological and physical toll of warfare, as well as the complex dynamics between soldiers and their commanding officers. The novel’s gritty realism and exploration of power, fear, and survival have established it as a classic in the genre of war fiction. It was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize for fiction in 1949, and a film adaptation was released in 1958.

The Caine Mutiny by Herman Wouk (1951)

Herman Wouk’s The Caine Mutiny, which won the Pulitzer Prize in 1952, is a gripping courtroom drama set aboard a U.S. Navy minesweeper in the Pacific. The novel follows the crew’s growing concerns about the mental stability of their captain, Lieutenant Commander Queeg, and the subsequent mutiny that leads to a dramatic trial. Wouk’s personal experience on a destroyer-minesweeper during World War II informs his compelling exploration of leadership, duty, and the moral dilemmas faced by those in command. A film adaptation of the novel was released in 1954, with Humphrey Bogart starring as Queeg.

Following the success of The Caine Mutiny, Wouk went on to write The Winds of War (1971) and its sequel War and Remembrance (1978). These sweeping epics — together nearly 2,000 pages long — follow the Henry family, particularly U.S. Navy officer Victor “Pug” Henry, as they cope with the political and personal aspects of the war, from the attack on Pearl Harbor to the conflict’s final days. Wouk’s attention to historical detail and character dynamics have cemented his place as one of the definitive chroniclers of World War II in fiction.

From Here to Eternity by James Jones (1951)

Winner of the National Book Award for Fiction in 1952, From Here to Eternity offers a raw, unvarnished look at military life in the months leading up to the attack on Pearl Harbor. Set on the Hawaiian island of Oahu, the novel follows a group of soldiers on a U.S. Army base as they experience the harsh realities of military bureaucracy, personal conflicts, and the looming threat of war. At the heart of the story is Private Robert E. Lee Prewitt, a champion boxer and talented bugler who refuses to conform, even as he faces brutal treatment from his superiors. Alongside him is First Sergeant Milton Anthony Warden, a disciplined yet disillusioned soldier who risks his military career when he has an affair with his commanding officer's wife.

Jones, a World War II veteran, brings authenticity and emotional depth to the story as he explores themes of loyalty, authority, and personal freedom, giving readers a stark look at the internal struggles of soldiers and the moral compromises demanded by military life. The novel’s realism made it a literary sensation and led to a critically acclaimed film adaptation in 1953, which won eight Academy Awards including Best Picture.

Catch-22 by Joseph Heller (1961)

Joseph Heller’s Catch-22 is a satirical novel and cultural touchstone that redefined war literature in the 1960s with its dark humor and scathing critique of military bureaucracy. Drawing on his own experience as a U.S. Army Air Force bombardier in World War II, Heller creates a chaotic, nonlinear narrative centered on Captain John Yossarian, a man who is desperate to escape the absurdities of war. Ingrained in popular culture is the infamous “catch-22” rule: A soldier can be grounded if declared insane, but requesting to be discharged is considered proof of sanity, creating a no-win paradox.

Nominated for the National Book Award in 1962, Catch-22 offers sharp commentary on the futility of conflict and the human cost of war. It has captured the attention of readers for decades, earning it a place among the greatest works of 20th-century fiction.

Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut (1969)

Slaughterhouse-Five is an American classic — a groundbreaking work of postmodern literature that blends historical fiction, autobiography, science fiction, and satire in a shocking and thought-provoking meditation on free will, fate, and the randomness of life. Vonnegut tells the story of Billy Pilgrim, an American soldier who survives the firebombing of Dresden during World War II and becomes "unstuck in time," experiencing moments of his life out of sequence.

Drawing heavily from his own experiences as a prisoner of war in Dresden, Vonnegut crafts a compelling novel about the horrors of war and the search for meaning in chaos that continues to resonate. With its unconventional structure and emotional depth, Slaughterhouse-Five established Vonnegut as a literary cult hero and remains his most influential work.

What Were the Earliest Hotels Like?

Maids Head Hotel in Norwich

Author Timothy Ott

December 17, 2024

Love it?61

Whether we’re checking into a five-star resort or a shack with a roof and cable TV off the interstate, we all expect a base level of service for a stay at a hotel. Of course, this is a luxury that comes with 21st-century lodging. Amenities such as running water, clean sheets, and free coffee are taken for granted nowadays, but they certainly weren’t the industry standard in the early days of hospitality.

Given that it’s easier to enjoy the view from our comfy modern chairs, let’s take a look at the rise of this form of transitory housing in various parts of the world, and revisit what it was like for guests to experience the earliest hotels.

Caravanserai of the Middle East

As ancient civilizations flourished in the modern-day Middle East, it ignited the spread of trade routes into Asia and Europe, and with that development came the need for lodging to shelter travelers who were on the road for weeks to months at a time.

As described in Elaine Denby’s Grand Hotels: Reality and Illusion, these early shelters populated the regular paths at frequent enough intervals to accommodate travelers, who often covered 15 to 20 miles in a single day. Known by such names as caravanserai, khan, or han, these mud-brick buildings typically provided guests with beds, stables, and a well or cistern for drinking water, although food was not necessarily part of the arrangement.

A more elaborate and still-standing example of caravanserai is the Ribat-i Sharaf in modern-day Iran. Built in the 12th century, this fortified complex boasted an inner and outer courtyard, a mosque, and detailed stucco decoration, rendering it suitable for royals and government officials.

Roman Mansiones and Tabernae

With their extensive network of roads that blanketed much of Europe, the ancient Romans also produced a system of lodging at regular intervals for travelers. High-ranking officials and well-connected merchants with official government documentation could enjoy a comfortable night's sleep, a full meal, and fresh horses to take for the next leg of the journey at a stone-built inn known as a mansio.

Those who were less fortunate often had to take their chances with the lower-scale tabernae, which presented an array of hazards that included uncomfortable reed-stuffed mattresses, unsanitary kitchens, poor drinking water, and vermin.

Travelers in rural areas, meanwhile, often found themselves bedding down in what were essentially glorified stables. Such remote lodging, with its poorly fastened doors, could leave customers at the mercy of other ill-intentioned guests or an unscrupulous innkeeper.

Asian Post Houses and Ryokan

The caravanserai that dotted the western sections of the Silk Road took on similar forms in the lodgings found nearer to the east end of the trade route, in China. Those in the employ of the Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan enjoyed what tended to be luxurious stays in these dwellings, as documented by Venetian explorer Marco Polo: "Every 25 miles there is a beautiful, palatial post house where the messengers can stay in magnificent beds with silk sheets and every other luxury suitable for a king," he wrote. "There are always 400 well-kept horses ready, which are supplied and fed by nearby towns. There are more than 10,000 such palaces, all beautifully furnished, and more than 200,000 horses in all."

Elsewhere in Asia, a different form of lodging took root. When pilgrimages to Buddhist temples in Japan became popular among the eighth-century aristocracy, the temples were arranged to accommodate guests; this hospitality was said to mark the beginnings of the ryokan, a traditional Japanese inn often built in the vicinity of natural hot spring baths.

Some of the ryokan that emerged from this early period remain popular with modern travelers seeking a respite from their busy urban lives. Dating back to 705 CE, Nishiyama Onsen Keiunkan has been recognized by Guinness World Records as the oldest continuously running hotel in the world. The second-oldest, Houshi Ryokan, has been operated by the same family since opening in 718 CE.

Credit: Brian Maudsley/ Alamy Stock Photo

Inns of Medieval Europe

Along with the traffic of traveling tradesmen, the paths carved out by religious pilgrims prompted the need for places of shelter in medieval Europe. Although many of the hostels and hospices were overseen by benevolent monks, lodgers still had to deal with such discomforts as flea-infested floors and a log in lieu of a pillow.

Other long-standing inns of the region offered accommodations that were literally fit for a king. The Angel and Royal in Grantham, England, was said to have hosted King John in 1213, while its current restaurant was the site of Richard III receiving the Great Seal in 1483. Similarly, the historic Maids Head Hotel in Norwich provided lodging for Cardinal Wolsey in 1519 and for members of Queen Elizabeth I's entourage in 1587.

By the Late Middle Ages, England's larger cities had somewhere in the neighborhood of 10 to 20 inns. A typical inn featured a kitchen, stable, storage rooms, and varying degrees of private and communal sleeping quarters. Their proprietors stood out as prominent figures about town, with many innkeepers also serving in local government posts and as banking agents.

As it became increasingly common for vacationers to travel for pleasure, many older European coaching inns, so named for the coach travelers they received, began adding private sitting rooms and entertainment venues geared toward the longer-staying guests. One such example is the U.K.'s Lion Hotel Shrewsbury, which unveiled an elegant ballroom in the late 18th century.

United States: From Taverns to Modern Luxury

Spawned from the inns that populated Britain, the taverns of North American metropolitan centers took on their own distinct character by the early years of the new republic. Typically featuring six to 10 rooms in nondistinct buildings, these taverns were notorious for filthy conditions and indifferent service, with lodgers often forced to share rooms and even beds with strangers.

However, it wasn't long before the modern hotel emerged from these settings. From its opening in 1794, the City Hotel in New York came equipped with a ballroom, a bar, public parlors, and the largest circulating library in the country. Most important, the 137-room hotel offered its guests a luxury that was largely nonexistent in the downscale taverns: private sleeping rooms.

Boston's Exchange Coffee House upped the ante for extravagance: A seven-story behemoth with more than 200 rooms, the hotel featured a glass-paneled atrium, a ballroom, retail stores, a coffee house, and an exchange floor. Its mammoth dimensions led to its downfall, though, as firemen were unable to reach the 1818 blaze that began on its top floors and spread until the structure was incinerated less than 10 years after it was completed.

The quest to further refine the guest experience continued with the 1829 debut of Boston's 170-room Tremont House, which offered such amenities as indoor plumbing, individually keyed locks, and a bell communication system. While this sort of luxury accommodation was the exception instead of the norm, the widespread acceptance of the term “hotel” over “tavern” by this time demonstrated that there was no going back to the lax standards of the previous century.

When Did We Start Having Parades?

19th-century parade procession

Author Nicole Villeneuve

December 17, 2024

Love it?24

Parades are a curious phenomenon: We gather en masse to march through a space with music, costumes, and elaborate displays. But even at their most odd, these festive demonstrations also feel universal — most likely because they represent a tradition that spans continents and centuries.

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Before there were parades, there were processions. These were ceremonial or ritualistic events that anthropologists believe predated parades as a way to connect with community — and with the divine. Their roots stretch back to ancient civilizations: In Mesopotamia, as early as 2900 BCE, priests and citizens marched with statues of deities such as the Babylonian god Marduk during the multiday Akitu celebrations for the new year.

The Panathenaic festival, held in Athens to honor the goddess Athena, similarly featured a grand procession to the Acropolis, where offerings and sacrifices were made. These events were spiritual and social, but they were not yet parades as we know them. As author Doug Matthews explains in his book Why We Love Parades: Their History and Enduring Appeal, there is an important difference: A procession has deeper significance behind the occasion, while a parade, though often organized around an occasion, is primarily about the content of the event for the enjoyment of spectators.

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