The Most Popular Baby Name Every Year of the Last Century

Nurse with newborn babies

Over the past hundred years, baby-naming trends have largely been shaped by family traditions and popular culture. Classic names such as Mary, John, Betty, and James often appear repeatedly in family trees, passed down out of respect for previous generations and a desire to keep family legacies alive. By the latter half of the 20th century, parents found baby name inspiration in popular culture, including films, theater, and music. The name Jennifer, for instance, began its climb in the U.S. thanks to the George Bernard Shaw play The Doctor’s Dilemma, which debuted on Broadway in 1927. Today, Olivia and Liam are the reigning favorites, and it’s likely only a matter of time before names that are already in the top 10 — such as Mia, Mateo, Evelyn, and Elijah — claim the No. 1 spots.Here is a fascinating look at the most popular girls’ and boys’ names of the last century, based on data collected by the U.S. Social Security Administration from Social Security card applications.

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1924 to 1929

1924: Mary, Robert
1925: Mary, Robert
1926: Mary, Robert
1927: Mary, Robert
1928: Mary, Robert
1929: Mary, Robert

The “Roaring ’20s” brought new cultural, economic, and sexual freedoms for women, but the most popular female names of the Greatest Generation — those born between 1901 and 1927 — didn’t reflect this newfound sense of liberation. Mary remained the most popular girls’ name from 1924 to 1929, just as it had since 1900. A biblical name that appears in both the Old and New Testaments, Mary is the anglicized form of Maria and originated from the Hebrew Miryam. In 1924, the name Robert, favored by European royalty and nobility in the Middle Ages,” replaced John, another common biblical name, as the most popular boys’ name, ending John’s decades-long place at the top of the list.

1930s

1930: Mary, Robert
1931: Mary, Robert
1932: Mary, Robert
1933: Mary, Robert
1934: Mary, Robert
1935: Mary, Robert
1936: Mary, Robert
1937: Mary, Robert
1938: Mary, Robert
1939: Mary, Robert

The end of the 1920s represented the beginning of the Silent Generation, which continued until 1945. For children born in the 1930s, it was an era marked by scarcity, sacrifice, and traditional values. This generation is also known as the Traditionalist Generation, and the most popular baby names of the 1930s reflect that characteristic: As in the second half of the 1920s, Mary and Robert remained the most popular female and male names, respectively, throughout the decade.

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1940s

1940: Mary, James
1941: Mary, James
1942: Mary, James
1943: Mary, James
1944: Mary, James
1945: Mary, James
1946: Mary, James
1947: Linda, James
1948: Linda, James
1949: Linda, James

With the end of the Silent Generation in 1945, a new era of baby boomers — so named for the “baby boom” that happened after World War II — was born. After decades as the No. 1 female name, Mary lost that designation when Linda claimed the top spot in 1947, boosted by the popularity of Jack Lawrence’s 1946 song “Linda.”For boys’ names, Robert’s 16-year reign at the top came to an end at the beginning of the decade, when James — a staple on the top 100 most popular names thanks to both its biblical and royal associations — took the No. 1 spot in 1940 and stayed there until 1952.

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1950s

1950: Linda, James
1951: Linda, James
1952: Linda, James
1953: Mary, Robert
1954: Mary, Michael
1955: Mary, Michael
1956: Mary, Michael
1957: Mary, Michael
1958: Mary, Michael
1959: Mary, Michael

Linda continued to be the top female name at the start of the 1950s but swapped places with Mary (again) in 1953, when Mary reclaimed the No. 1 spot and stayed there for the rest of the decade. Meanwhile, three different boys’ names saw the No. 1 spot during the 1950s. James remained at the top for three years before Robert returned as the No. 1 name for just one year in 1953. In 1954, Robert slipped to No. 2 behind Michael — a biblical name historically associated with emperors, kings, and saints — which remained the most popular male name for the rest of the decade.

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1960s

1960: Mary, David
1961: Mary, Michael
1962: Lisa, Michael
1963: Lisa, Michael
1964: Lisa, Michael
1965: Lisa, Michael
1966: Lisa, Michael
1967: Lisa, Michael
1968: Lisa, Michael
1969: Lisa, Michael

In 1960 and 1961, Mary was once again the most popular female name in the nation. In 1961, Lisa appeared on the list of the top five most popular names for the first time, coming in second behind Mary. The following year, Lisa surpassed Mary as the No. 1 female name, and stayed in the top spot for the rest of the decade. David, which first appeared in the top five most popular male names in 1948 and continually ranked between No. 2 and No. 5 for the next 12 years, finally took the top spot in 1960. Its reign was short-lived, though: David was bumped in 1961 by perennial favorite Michael, making 1960 the only year David has ever held the No. 1 spot, despite being in the top five 39 times over the past century.

1970s

1970: Jennifer, Michael
1971: Jennifer, Michael
1972: Jennifer, Michael
1973: Jennifer, Michael
1974: Jennifer, Michael
1975: Jennifer, Michael
1976: Jennifer, Michael
1977: Jennifer, Michael
1978: Jennifer, Michael
1979: Jennifer, Michael

Generation X, which includes people born between 1965 and 1980, introduced a generation of “latchkey kids,” children of dual-income or divorced parents whose free-range childhoods led them to be characterized as independent, resourceful, and cynical. Jennifer, which first appeared in the top five most popular female names in 1968, took the top spot in 1970 and stayed there throughout the 1970s and into the 1980s. Michael, which had dominated the top of the list since the mid-1950s, continued as No. 1 throughout the decade. Three names — James, Christopher, and Jason — vied for the No. 2 spot over the course of the decade, but neither Christopher nor Jason ever reached No. 1, unlike James, which had previously held that spot for 13 years.

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1980s

1980: Jennifer, Michael
1981: Jennifer, Michael
1982: Jennifer, Michael
1983: Jennifer, Michael
1984: Jennifer, Michael
1985: Jessica, Michael
1986: Jessica, Michael
1987: Jessica, Michael
1988: Jessica, Michael
1989: Jessica, Michael

The year 1981 marked the start of Generation Y, better known as millennials. This generation grew up during a time of major technological advancements, including personal computers and internet access. During the early 1980s, Jennifer continued to hold the top spot as the most popular female name, but 1985 saw another three-syllable “J” name take the lead: Jessica. This name may have appealed to parents who wanted a trendier “J” name than Jennifer, but the first recorded instance of Jessica actually dates back to William Shakespeare’s play, The Merchant of Venice. Meanwhile, Michael enjoyed another decade at No. 1, while Christopher remained No. 2 throughout the 1980s and into the 1990s, never quite surpassing the popularity of Michael.

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1990s

1990: Jessica, Michael
1991: Ashley, Michael
1992: Ashley, Michael
1993: Jessica, Michael
1994: Jessica, Michael
1995: Jessica, Michael
1996: Emily, Michael
1997: Emily, Michael
1998: Emily, Michael
1999: Emily, Jacob

In 1993, the World Wide Web launched, introducing a whole new way of learning and communicating. The millennial generation came to a close in the mid-1990s, and 1997 is considered the beginning of Generation Z, also called “zoomers.” Jessica bounced between No. 1 and No. 2 for most of the decade before disappearing from the top five in 1998. Ashley, a name more commonly given to boys prior to the 1960s, held the lead in 1991 and 1992, but slipped to No. 2, No. 3, and No. 5 for the rest of the decade. Emily, another appealing “-ly” name, appeared in the top five in 1993 and held the lead for 13 years, starting in 1996. And after holding the No. 1 spot as the most popular male name for 44 of the previous 45 years, Michael was dethroned in 1999 by Jacob, a name that first appeared in the top five in 1995.

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2000s

2000: Emily, Jacob
2001: Emily, Jacob
2002: Emily, Jacob
2003: Emily, Jacob
2004: Emily, Jacob
2005: Emily, Jacob
2006: Emily, Jacob
2007: Emily, Jacob
2008: Emily, Jacob
2009: Isabella, Jacob

The year 2001 marked the beginning of the second millennium CE, but the occasion didn’t have an impact on the most popular baby names for the youngest Gen Zers. Though computers and the internet changed the way millennials lived and worked, Generation Z is considered the first true digital native generation, as this cohort has never known a time when the internet wasn’t as close as their smartphone. Still, for older Gen X and millennial parents, sticking with tradition was the name of the name game in this booming digital era. Emily held the No. 1 spot for the entire decade until Isabella, which first appeared on the top five in 2006, took the lead in 2009. And Jacob, a biblical name with a more contemporary feel, replaced Michael after a long reign and remained No. 1 throughout this decade and into the next.

2010s

2010: Isabella, Jacob
2011: Sophia, Jacob
2012: Sophia, Jacob
2013: Sophia, Noah
2014: Emma, Noah
2015: Emma, Noah
2016: Emma, Noah
2017: Emma, Liam
2018: Emma, Liam
2019: Olivia, Liam

Those born in the 2010s are shaping up to be known as Generation Alpha. The oldest members are just entering their teen years and the qualities that will define their cohort are still being formed. That fact might be reflected in the number of names — four for girls and three for boys — that held the No. 1 spot over the decade. This decade saw a trend toward vintage and vintage-inspired names. Isabella started in the No. 1 spot just as it had ended the previous decade, but was displaced in 2011 by Sophia, which stayed at the top for three years before being replaced by Emma. Emma then stayed at No. 1 for four years, before Olivia claimed the No. 1 spot to finish the decade. Continuing its popularity from the previous decade, Jacob held the top spot as the most popular male name for three years before being unseated by Noah. Four years later, in 2017, Liam — a derivative of William that first appeared on the top five list in 2013 as the third most popular male name — replaced Noah as the most popular name for the rest of the decade.

2020s

2020: Olivia, Liam
2021: Olivia, Liam
2022: Olivia, Liam
2023: Olivia, Liam
2024: Olivia, Liam

We’re only a few years into this century’s ’20s, but the most popular baby names reflect how trends have shifted since the start of the new millennium. So far in this decade, Olivia and Liam are holding steady at No. 1, but old-fashioned names are making a notable comeback. Henry, which ranked as the 18th most popular male name in 1924, climbed to No. 8 in 2023, and Evelyn, which was the 12th most popular female name in 1924, was No. 9 in 2023. On the other hand, Robert and Mary, the two most popular names 100 years ago, now rank 89th and 135th in popularity, showing how much trends have changed in the last hundred years.

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Iconic Photos From Each Decade of the 20th Century

“Lunch Atop a Skyscraper,” 1932

In the mid-1820s, French inventor Joseph Nicéphore Niépce stood at an upstairs window of his estate in Saint-Loup-de-Varennes in Burgundy, France. In his hand he held a primitive camera. After at least eight hours of exposure, Niépce created the world’s first — or at least oldest surviving — photograph, known as “View From the Window at Le Gras.” In that moment, an entirely new medium was born.

Photography rapidly went from one first to another. In 1838, Louis Daguerre, inventor of the daguerreotype, shot the first photo to include people. In 1840, English scientist John W. Draper took the first photo of the moon. And in 1861, Scottish mathematical physicist James Clerk Maxwell produced the earliest color photograph. Advances continued apace, until another landmark — the first cellphone photo, in 1997 — launched an era in which cameras became ubiquitous, and the age of the selfie was born.

Throughout the 20th century, photographers captured images that ran the gamut of human experience. Here are some of the most iconic photos from each decade of the last century, from Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, to the far-flung reaches of the universe.

“First Flight,” 1903

On the morning of December 17, 1903, on the sand dunes 4 miles south of the fishing village of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, one of the most pivotal moments in human history was captured on camera. Once developed, the photo showed the moment that aviation pioneer Orville Wright took to the air in the world’s first successful airplane.

The Breaker Boys Photo, 1911

In 1908, the U.S. National Child Labor Committee hired sociologist and photographer Lewis Hine to photograph children at work in mills, mines, and factories. His photos of the “breaker boys” — children usually between the ages of 8 and 12 who worked in coal mines — helped build public support for legislation barring child labor.

“Le Violon d'Ingres,” 1924

“Le Violon d'Ingres” is a black-and-white photograph created by the American visual artist Man Ray. It features the model Kiki de Montparnasse, with two f-holes painted on her back to make her body resemble a violin. One of the most iconic images of the surrealist movement, it set a record in 2022 when it sold for $12.4 million, becoming the most expensive photo of all time.

“Lunch Atop a Skyscraper,” 1932

The 1930s were a decade of many iconic photos, from the Hindenburg zeppelin bursting into flames to a classic photo purporting to show the Loch Ness monster. Arguably the most famous, however, was a black-and-white portrait of 11 ironworkers eating lunch while sitting precariously on a steel beam 850 feet in the air, taken during the construction of Rockefeller Center in New York City.

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“Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima,” 1945

World War II heralded a new era of war photography, much of it more intimate and at times more harrowing than anything previously seen. One of the most recognizable images was taken by Joe Rosenthal of the Associated Press on February 23, 1945. It shows six United States Marines raising the American flag atop Mount Suribachi during the Battle of Iwo Jima. Three of the Marines were killed in action during the battle, but their image remains a timeless portrayal of troops at war.

“The Scream Image,” 1957

In 1957, photographer Will Counts took a series of photos during the Central High School desegregation crisis in Little Rock, Arkansas. One of his photos, sometimes known as “The Scream Image,” shows Black student Elizabeth Eckford being harassed by white students in front of the school. Instantly iconic, the image became a key symbol of the Civil Rights Movement.

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“Earthrise,” 1968

On Christmas Eve in 1968, the crew of Apollo 8 saw a spectacular sight as they orbited the moon: the Earth appearing above the lunar horizon. Astronaut Bill Anders took a photo, which became known as “Earthrise.” Not only was it the first color photograph of Earth taken from space, but it also inspired a generation to think more seriously about our planet. The image is now widely credited with advancing the global environmental movement.

Nixon Gives the “V” Sign, 1974

The 1970s were characterized by political upheaval on a global scale, with frequent coups, domestic conflicts, and civil wars. In the U.S., the decade was marked by the Vietnam War, President Richard Nixon’s term, and the Watergate scandal. This iconic image shows Nixon waving goodbye from the steps of his helicopter as he leaves the White House after his farewell address on August 9, 1974.

“Tank Man,” 1989

From a sixth-floor balcony of the Beijing Hotel, Jeff Widener of the Associated Press took one of the most recognizable photos of all time. Below him, in Tiananmen Square, a lone man bravely stood in front of a column of tanks, repeatedly changing his position in order to obstruct their attempted advance. Widener’s photo is a classic image of resistance, though the lone protester has never been identified.

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“Pillars of Creation,” 1995

Photography is literally light-years ahead of where it was when Joseph Nicéphore Niépce took the first photo in history from his upstairs window. “The Pillars of Creation” — arguably the Hubble Space Telescope’s most iconic image — shows a section of the Eagle Nebula star cluster located some 7,000 light-years from Earth. It features three huge, fingerlike columns formed of interstellar gas and dust, where the process of creating new stars takes place, all captured in a truly awe-inspiring photograph.

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What Was America’s Population Through History?

Historic people on map of U.S.

The first inhabitants of what is now the United States appeared around 15,000 to 20,000 years ago — a blip in time compared to the annals of some of the earliest places humans lived. Initially, population growth was slow due to the continent’s geographic isolation; significant increases began only after Europeans made their way to the Americas throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. By the 20th century, the U.S. population was experiencing rapid expansion — a trend that has slowed in recent years. Here’s a look at America’s changing population through history, from early prehistoric arrivals to the decline we’re seeing today.

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Prehistory

The North American continent was inhabited by prehistoric humans, although they arrived much later than humans in other parts of the world. While early human species have been around for millions of years, the first people didn’t make their way to North America until sometime between 20,000 BCE and 13,000 BCE. It’s believed they traveled via the Bering Land Bridge from modern-day Siberia to Alaska, although exactly when and how they first arrived is still a matter of debate. The number of people who were around in this era is debated as well, and while estimates vary, it’s believed some 230,000 people were living in America by 10,000 BCE.

Antiquity

By 1 CE, an estimated 640,000 people were living in what is now the United States. Indigenous peoples developed agricultural practices that helped to define their communities, especially along the Mississippi watershed. By 1100 CE, a settlement known as Cahokia, located across the Mississippi River from modern-day St. Louis, was home to about 20,000 people. The population continued to grow throughout the land, and by 1400, there were an estimated 1.74 million people in the modern-day U.S.

When Christopher Columbus landed in the Caribbean in 1492, that number had increased by nearly 150,000 people. But in the years that followed, as other European explorers began to map and claim parts of North America, waves of disease, displacement, and conflict had a major effect on the population. Within 100 years of the first European landing in the New World, an estimated 85% to 90% of the Americas’ Indigenous population was wiped out. In the modern-day United States alone, the population dropped almost 60% between the years 1500 and 1600, from 1.89 million to 779,000.

Colonial Era

By the early 1600s, Spanish and English explorers had established permanent settlements in what is now St. Augustine, Florida, and Jamestown, Virginia, and by the mid-1600s, the Pilgrims had established themselves in modern-day Massachusetts. By 1700, the population of the colonies had grown to an estimated 250,000. Official population estimates at the time did not include Indigenous peoples, an omission that wasn’t corrected until the late 19th century; scholars who later attempted to include Indigenous populations in the count put it closer to 900,000. In 1776, when the U.S. gained independence from England, the known population had surged to approximately 2.5 million — but the new country was about to undergo even more transformation.

Industrial Revolution

The period of time from the American Revolution through the end of World War II saw explosive population growth. In 1790, the first official U.S. Census Bureau counted 3.9 million Americans living in the country. This era coincided with the start of the Industrial Revolution, a transformative time in the Western world. Technological innovation not only marked a societal shift from agrarian to industrial economies, but also spurred rapid urbanization. The era saw improvements in working conditions, sanitation, and medical care, too, making life expectancy longer than ever before. Ten years after the first U.S. census, in 1800, the population had shot up by almost 1.4 million people to reach 5.3 million. That surged to 23 million by 1850, fueled largely by a wave of European immigration to the U.S. By 1900, the country was home to 76 million people, a number that also reflected the country’s Indigenous residents. America’s population continued to grow during the early 20th century, reaching about 148 million by 1945.

Baby Boom

The post-World War II era saw a dramatic increase in birth rates — a trend that famously became known as the baby boom. The sharp rise was due to a number of factors, key among them being economic prosperity, soldiers returning from war, and a cultural emphasis on family life. By the time the boom tapered off in 1964, some 76 million babies had been born, and these new citizens made up almost 40% of the country’s population of almost 197 million.

Today

In 2024, the U.S. Census Bureau counted America’s population at 337 million people. And while that’s an all-time high, the rate of growth has been slowing down. The baby boom was followed by a period of lower birth rates, which remain on a downward slope. Meanwhile, an aging population means death rates are projected to meet or exceed births.

The postwar period also saw changes in U.S. immigration policy, including the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, which did away with previous immigration quotas, opening the doors to more new Americans. Immigration has been the main driver of the country’s population growth since 1970, and that trend is expected to continue. In 2023, the Census Bureau projected that sustaining diverse immigration will help to balance the effects of an aging population. Still, despite a projected global population increase of nearly 2 billion people in the next 30 years, the U.S. population is expected to peak at around 370 million by 2080, then decline slightly to 366 million by 2100.

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Strange Workplace Etiquette of the 1960s

1960s workplace

The 1960s were a decade of profound social change in the U.S., as movements for civil rights and gender equality gained momentum across the country. While the standard American workplace was not immune to these changes, etiquette on the job still tended to reflect postwar traditionalism and formality. In offices of all kinds, people were expected to dress up and respect their superiors. Women held lower positions that didn’t pay nearly as much as men’s roles, racial diversity was sorely lacking, and behaviors that are now considered unhealthy and unprofessional could be everyday occurrences on the job. Here are some of the more surprising aspects of workplace etiquette during the 1960s.

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Smoking at the Office

Today, the thought of people puffing away on cigarettes at their desks seems too bizarre to have ever been the norm. But in the 1960s, approximately 42% of American adults were smokers. The habit was common at just about every workplace, and it was normal to see smoke filling the air and full ashtrays not only in business offices, but also in hospital halls, airplanes, and more. In 1964, the U.S. Surgeon General released its first report on smoking and health, definitively linking cigarette smoke with dangerous health problems. Smoking nonetheless remained ubiquitous in the workplace throughout the 1960s and for decades to follow, until most U.S. workplaces banned the practice in the 1990s and early 2000s.

Imbibing on the Job

As depicted in the hit TV series Mad Men, it was common to see well-stocked bar carts or bottles of spirits tucked into desk drawers in the 1960s. It was also common for executives at big-city advertising agencies and corporate firms to head to nearby bars for what became known as a “three martini lunch.” After a leisurely, booze-soaked break, the execs would put in a little more time at the office before heading back to the bar with co-workers for more cocktails after work.

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Formal Attire

After World War II, many women started to incorporate more leisurely attire, such as pants, into their day-to-day wardrobe. But in the workplace, dresses and skirts — with stockings — were still preferred in the 1960s. Men dressed in suits and ties, but the silhouette became sleeker as bulky, sloped shoulders went out of style. Despite the decade’s fashion formalities, the idea of “casual Friday” also has its roots in the 1960s workplace. In Hawaii, the president of the Hawaiian Fashion Guild encouraged state politicians to wear Hawaiian shirts to work as a way to promote the local garment industry. The “Aloha Friday” trend had taken off in the state by the late 1960s, but trickled into the U.S. mainland more slowly, gaining widespread adoption in the 1990s.

Office Hierarchy

Workplaces in the 1960s adhered to formal hierarchies. There were clear distinctions between management and employees — often physically, with managers in private offices and employees in rooms where desks were placed side by side like a factory line. Communication was direct, usually in person, and people often used titles and surnames when addressing colleagues or superiors. In the early ’60s, cubicles were also introduced to office-based workplaces as a flexible “Action Office” concept designed by Herman Miller. It was a major departure from the traditional office layout, giving employees a more personalized experience.

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Once-Popular Baby Names You Never See Anymore

Newborn baby and mother

Much like fashion, the cyclical nature of baby names is influenced not only by cultural shifts, but also by historical events and popular media. For instance, in 1931, the name Bella was ranked No. 985 in the top 1,000 female names by the Social Security Administration, which uses Social Security card application data to determine the popularity of names, before falling off the list entirely for 69 years. We can’t be sure why the name made the list again in the year 2000, coming in at No. 749, but its rapid rise in popularity from there can be attributed to Bella Swan, the central character in Stephenie Meyer’s Twilight series, published between 2005 and 2008. Bella jumped in popularity to No. 122 in 2008, then to No. 58 the following year and No. 48 in 2010. The name remained on the list of the top 100 most popular female names through 2022, a trend bolstered by the film adaptations of the Twilight books.

While some popular names fade away only to come surging back many years later, others are perennial favorites decade after decade. Michael has been the No. 1 most popular male name for 44 of the past 100 years. On the female names list, Mary has taken the top spot 32 times and ranks as the overall most popular name of the past 100 years, despite falling as low as No. 135 over the years. The name James maintains the top spot for the most popular male name of the past century, though it has ranked as low as No. 19.

Old-fashioned names such as Harriet and Amos may make us think of our grandparents and a bygone era, but there is always a chance they’ll make a trendy comeback alongside more contemporary names such as Onyx, Anakin, and Nova (some of the top baby names in 2024). Here is a nostalgic look at eight vintage baby names that were once widely popular but have faded in use — at least for now.

Doris

Doris just squeaks onto the list of the 100 most popular names of the past 100 years at No. 98, despite the fact that it never cracked the top five in any year of the past century. Peaking at No. 6 in 1929, Doris didn’t even make the top 1,000 names in 2023. Doris Day, born Doris Kappelhoff in 1922, is arguably the most famous Doris of the past century. A popular singer and actress in the 1950s and ’60s, her wholesome girl-next-door image contrasted with the cultural shifts of the 1960s, which may account for the name’s decreasing popularity in the decades since.

Albert

Albert is an example of a male name that seems old-fashioned and outdated in the U.S., but is still going strong in the U.K. This might have something to do with the number of royals who have had the name — in the past 200 years, there have been 12 members of the British royal family named Albert. The popularity of Albert peaked in the U.S. in 1910, when it was the 14th most popular male name. It ranked at No. 590 in 2023 in the U.S., while in the U.K., Albert ranked 76th on the list of the top 100 names for boys in 2024.

Judith

Some old-fashioned names have never scored high on the popularity lists, but still consistently ranked in the top 50 or top 100 names for several decades. In a list of the top five female names in each year of the last century, Judith appears only once, as the fourth most popular name in 1940. Yet it was one of the top 50 most popular female names between 1936 and 1956. In overall rankings, Judith comes in at No. 62 in a list of the 100 top female names of the past century, but most of that popularity came in the first half of the century; the name hasn’t cracked the top 100 since the 1960s.

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Ernest

The name Ernest has had a long and popular history in the U.S., peaking at No. 21 on the list of the 1,000 most popular male names in 1885. It stayed in the top 100 until 1957 before a slow but steady drop saw it falling off the top 1,000 list entirely by 2019. Despite the name’s literary connections, including Ernest Hemingway and Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest, the decline of Ernest might have been due to its association with the fictional character Ernest P. Worrell, played by actor Jim Varney. Varney’s bumbling slapstick humor in television commercials, a TV series, and several feature films made the character a household name — though not one that parents wanted to give their babies.

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Mildred

In 1920, Mildred was the sixth most popular female name in the United States, but by 1985 it wasn’t even in the top 1,000. Mildred Pierce, a 1941 novel by James M. Cain that was adapted for film in 1945, may have helped sustain the name’s popularity well into the 1950s before it began a steady downward trend. While this old-fashioned name doesn’t seem poised for a comeback, the diminutive Millie ranked as the 102nd most popular female name in 2023 — its highest rank ever, thanks to the popularity of British actress Millie Bobby Brown.

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Ralph

From 1900 to 1963, Ralph consistently remained on the list of the top 100 most popular male names, peaking at No. 21 in 1917. From there, it drifted further and further down the list before making its final appearance in 2018 at No. 950. The decline in the name’s popularity likely had something to do with the unfortunate fact that the word “ralph” became a U.S. slang term for vomit in the mid-1960s.

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Gertrude

Despite being the 23rd most popular female name in 1900 and staying in the top 100 until 1930, the name Gertrude completely vanished from the top 1,000 names after 1965. The sharp decline of this old-fashioned name likely followed the same trajectory of Doris, falling out of favor as the cultural revolution swept the country, and names such as Lisa, Kimberly, and Michelle rose in popularity.

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Virgil

The name Virgil is best known as the English name of Publius Vergilius Maro, the influential first-century Roman poet who penned the epic Aeneid. While the name has never been high on the list of the most popular male names, it cracked the top 100 names five times in the early 1900s and stayed in the top 500 until the mid-1970s. Virgil made its final appearance on the list of the top 1,000 male names in 1991 at No. 861, and some trend-watchers suggest it’s due for a comeback.

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The Strangest Suggestions From Old Advice Columns

Advice column, 1943

Websites such as Reddit, Quora, and JustAnswer have ushered in what The New Yorker recently called the “age of peak advice.” But people have long had a fondness for the old-fashioned advice column. The anonymity of the forum allows answer-seekers to sidestep embarrassment and participate in a virtual confessional. The advice column gained popularity in the U.S. in the late 1890s, catering mainly to women with a focus on social interactions, matters of the heart, and childcare. Marie Manning’s 1889 “Advice to the Lovelorn” column in the New York Evening Journal set the standard, incorporating the tone of conduct books for young women, which were popular in Britain in the 18th century, into its responses.

The majority of advice columns were written by women, but the publishing apparatus was controlled by men, leading to questions and replies that often reflected the sexist views of a patriarchal society. Countless columns reinforced the need for women to assume traditional gender roles such as marriage, homemaking, and child-rearing, while topics such as sexual orientation and adultery were rarely viewed with empathy or nuance.

During the 19th and 20th centuries, women known by the pen names Dorothy Dix, Abigail Van Buren (of “Dear Abby” fame), and Ann Landers (Van Buren’s twin sister!) became the most well-known and trusted advice-givers in America. Of course, social attitudes and customs have changed significantly over the decades, as has our understanding of science, and thus some of the advice that writers doled out seems pretty strange today. Here are five questionable tips from advice columns of yesteryear.

Too Much Excitement Causes Baldness

Although modern medicine has identified some of the root causes (pun intended) of baldness, the science behind hair loss was much more nebulous in the mid-20th century. Letter writer “B.C.D.” asked in a 1959 issue of The London Weekly Magazine why more men than women seemed to go bald. The response was a little thin: “The hair of men more commonly falls off than that of women as they become bald from the greater excitement which their pursuits occasion.” Tell that to professional football player Mack Hollins.

Chemistry Is a Fun Way To Pass the Time

In an 1862 issue of The London Journal, readers were presented with a letter from “Harriet,” who was looking to find a way to “pass the dull evenings in the country.” The column dissuaded Harriet from pursuing activities such as books and music, which may have bored her, especially since she seemed cheerless. The suggestion? Science! According to the columnist, chemistry was “very popular with ladies who find time hanging heavily on their hands.” Was this response documenting an actual trend or making an inside joke that citizens of the 21st century don’t get? We may never know.

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Simply Ignore Your Husband

This particular piece of advice might not get the support of modern couples counselors. In a 1943 edition of The Winnipeg Evening Tribune, advice columnist Virginia Vane counseled “Mrs. S,” a happily married woman whose husband had more interest in the morning paper than connecting with her. Mrs. S explained that despite removing the curlers from her hair and “wearing a dress plus a good morning smile,” Mr. S remained unfazed and neglectful. Vane suggested a tit-for-tat response. “It might be wise to try ignoring him,” she wrote. “He’ll always read at breakfast so why don’t you ask him for the other half and read yourself. You’ll no doubt feel better.”

Women Should Never Be Ill

In the October 12, 1895 edition of Isle of Man Times, the “Advice to Wives” column prescribed nine rules for women, reinforcing the attitude that they should be selfless providers of childcare, cleaning, and meals. Like many advice columns from this era, it suggested that women were expected to put their husbands first, even at the risk of health and general happiness. “Don’t mope and cry because you are ill, and don’t get any fun; the man goes out to get all the fun, and your laugh comes in when he gets home again and tells you about it — some of it,” it stated. “As for being ill, women should never be ill.”

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What Was Earth’s Population Through History?

Illustration of human population

Today, it’s hard to imagine our entire planet populated by fewer people than we currently find in a single major city. And tens of thousands of years ago, it would have been shocking — and quite possibly terrifying — to imagine a world in which humans had built settlements as vast and crowded as those that exist today.

Population growth has, for the most part, been a long and steady process. But while it took most of human history for the population to reach 1 billion, it took only a little more than 200 additional years to hit 8 billion. Because of this rapid growth, the face of our planet and the influence that we’ve had on it have shifted massively in the last few centuries. Where it will all lead is an open question. But one thing is certain: People are currently living longer than ever before, and as things stand, the population will only continue to grow. Here’s a rundown of the world’s population throughout history, from prehistoric times to the present day.

Prehistoric Times

Historians believe that around 55,000 early humans walked the Earth some 1.2 million years ago. By the end of the last ice age — about 20,000 years ago — the population had risen to about 1 million members of Homo sapiens. Over the next 15,000 years, as human societies improved, the population increased more rapidly. By 5000 BCE, the world population was at least 5 million, and some estimates go as high as 20 million. But even that higher number is still less than the present-day populations of cities such as São Paulo, Shanghai, and Tokyo.

Antiquity

Classical antiquity — the period that saw the original Olympic Games and the first of Homer’s epic poems — began in the eighth century BCE. During this time, the global population was an estimated 50 million to 100 million. By 1 CE, the estimated population was at least 170 million. A significant chunk of this population was soon controlled by Rome. The Roman Empire reached its height in 117 CE, comprising all the land from Western Europe to the Middle East, with a total population between 50 million and 90 million people.

Middle Ages

The Middle Ages, or medieval period, lasted from around 500 CE to 1500 CE, from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the beginning of the Renaissance era in Europe. The greatest growth occurred in Europe during the high Middle Ages, when developments in agriculture, the rise of cities, and a decrease in invasions helped the population swell from 35 million to 80 million between 1000 CE and 1347 CE. Then disaster struck. Between 1347 and 1351, the “Black Death” (bubonic plague) ravaged the continent, killing some 20 million people — at least 30% of Europe’s entire population. It took until the 16th century for the population of Western Europe to once again reach pre-1347 levels.

Globally, the worldwide population during the medieval period is estimated to have been at least 190 million in 500 CE, rising to around 425 million by 1500 CE. One of the greatest dents in the global population outside of Europe was caused by the Mongol invasion of China. Beginning in the early 13th century under the command of Genghis Khan, the war led to the deaths of tens of millions of people — at the time, the global population was around 360 million.

Renaissance Era

The Renaissance period in Europe spanned from the 15th century to the early 17th century, and can be seen as the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity in the West. The era saw a demographic shift as European powers colonized much of the Americas. Trade routes and colonies were founded, and nations began to engage in empire building. The worldwide population grew from around 350 million in 1400 to about 545 million in 1600 — a significant amount, but nothing compared to what was to come next.

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution changed nearly every aspect of human society. Previously, birth rates and death rates were both very high, keeping the global human population comparatively stable. But when the Industrial Revolution began around 1760, improvements in technology, agriculture, medicine, and sanitation brought about a massive population growth spurt. In Western Europe, with people living longer and infant mortality on the decline, the population doubled during the 18th century from around 100 million to almost 200 million, and doubled again in the 19th century to roughly 400 million. Globally, a population landmark was reached in 1804 when the number of humans on Earth reached 1 billion for the first time.

Today — and Beyond

It took many thousands of years for the human population to reach 1 billion. But once that figure was reached, the growth rate became mind-boggling — and a source of concern due to the potential overpopulation of our planet. By 1950, the global population reached an estimated 2.5 billion. Today, the number of humans stands at a staggering 8 billion — and is currently growing by more than 200,000 people each day. According to the United Nations, the global population is expected to increase by nearly 2 billion in the next 30 years, and could peak at around 10.4 billion in the mid-2080s.

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The Strangest Mass Hysteria Events in History

Salem witch trials

History is dotted with instances of mass hysteria, a perplexing phenomenon in which large groups of people are struck by the same physical or mental affliction without any apparent explanation, from uncontrollable movement to widespread paranoia. Given the uncertainty as to what causes these curious events, contemporary doctors have remained baffled as to how to prevent or cure them. Though there are some theories, plenty of questions remain, in some cases hundreds of years after the incident took place. Let’s take a closer look at some of history’s strangest instances of mass hysteria, from the Middle Ages to the 20th century.

Dancing Plague of 1518

In 1518, the city of Strasbourg (in modern France) was overcome by a mysterious “dancing plague” that affected some 400 residents. It all began in July of that year, when a woman known as Frau Troffea began spontaneously dancing in the middle of the street. After a week of boogying solo, Troffea was joined by several dozen others who also developed the sudden urge to dance. The group only grew larger throughout the rest of the summer, expanding to several hundred people who danced until they collapsed from exhaustion, or in rare instances, suffered a fatal heart attack. Much as the event began without any explanation, the dancing epidemic a inexplicably started to wane by September, and the city returned to a state of normalcy.

Physicians at the time attributed the dancing ailment to “hot blood,” saying the only cure was for people to dance it out of their system until they no longer felt the urge. Other townsfolk believed they had been cursed by St. Vitus, the patron saint of dance, and were doomed to dance for eternity. But looking back, modern historians have several theories as to what caused the unusual event. Some believe it was induced by a combination of general stress and the side effects of new, untreated diseases such as syphilis. Another theory points to a fungus known as ergot, which is found on bread. If consumed, ergot can manifest itself in victims as spontaneous convulsions that may look like dance moves.

Salem Witch Trials

Between February 1692 and May 1693, more than 200 innocent people were accused of practicing witchcraft in the colonial town of Salem, Massachusetts. These accusations gave way to a mass hysterical event known today as the Salem Witch Trials, which was caused by a combination of xenophobia, religious extremism, and sexism.

The paranoia began at the house of Puritan minister Samuel Parris, whose 9-year-old daughter, Betty, along with her 11-year-old cousin, Abigail, began making unintelligible noises and convulsing. Other girls in town began exhibiting similar symptoms, claiming that it may have had something to do with being pinched and pricked by various residents who were seen to be of ill repute due to discrimination. This led to several women being accused of practicing witchcraft, including a beggar named Sarah Good, an elderly impoverished woman named Sarah Osburn, and an enslaved Indigenous woman named Tituba. While Good and Osburn maintained innocence, Tituba “confessed” to serving the devil. This confession was likely untrue and only made to avoid further punishment, but it emboldened the town to pursue further accusations.

As mass hysteria swept across Salem, dozens of women were brought before panels and tribunals for questioning, and 19 people were executed. The courts were only disbanded after the wife of Governor William Phips was accused of witchcraft, as it was Phips who had established the courts to begin with.

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The Hammersmith Ghost

In December 1803, a great panic struck the community of Hammersmith, a small town just outside London. Multiple locals claimed that a ghost cloaked in a white shroud had been confronting and terrorizing residents, and it was said that the ghostly specter would appear right as the church bell struck one in the morning. Locals believed the spirit was that of a villager who had died by suicide the year before, and that his tortured soul was destined to haunt the town. Residents cowered in fear at the idea of this apparition; there was even one instance where a spooked carriage driver thought he saw the ghost before abandoning his passengers and fleeing on foot. There are other reports of women fainting to death at the sight of the purported ghost, though there was no evidence that the spirit actually existed.

Eventually, some residents of the community got their hysteria in check and determined the ghost was most likely someone in a sheet who was intentionally scaring people as a prank. Others, however, maintained that a spirit was causing havoc from beyond the grave. One such believer was Francis Smith, who one evening mistook bricklayer Thomas Millwood — who wore an all-white outfit for his profession — for the supposed ghost, and shot Millwood dead in the street. Smith went on trial and was convicted of murder, yet he still garnered sympathy from townsfolk who were hysterical with fear. Smith’s sentence was reduced to one year of imprisonment, leading to a series of debates about whether someone could be held liable for a crime based on mistaken beliefs, as Smith committed the crime only after being deluded into believing there was a ghost in the neighborhood.

The Mad Gasser of Mattoon

Mattoon, Illinois, is a small town that was overcome by widespread panic in 1944, when reports of a “Mad Gasser” swept over the community. On September 1, a woman named Aline Kearney was overcome by a “sickening, sweet odor” that resulted in the temporary paralysis of her legs. Kearney’s husband arrived at the house shortly after and claimed to see a tall man wearing dark clothing and a tight-fitting cap standing outside the window, whom he chased until the mysterious man disappeared. Kearney’s condition returned to normal after 30 minutes, but this was just the first of many similar disturbances to come. After word spread of the Kearney incident, other townsfolk claimed they also suffered paralytic symptoms after smelling unusual odors. The panic grew to the point where chemical weapons experts were brought into the community. Armed gangs also began roaming the streets to try to find the “Mad Gasser” and bring them to justice.

There were many theories as to the identity of the mysterious menace, ranging from a chemistry teacher to an escaped Nazi prisoner of war. But in the end no assailant was ever found, and it’s highly unlikely that one ever even existed. Many of the anecdotal gassing incidents were fueled by mass hysteria, as one woman was simply overcome by odors from a spilled bottle of nail polish. It’s also theorized that years of wartime-related stress, combined with reports of chemical weapons being used overseas, added to the overall sense of communal anxiety in Mattoon.

Credit: Sue Cunningham Photographic/ Alamy Stock Photo

Tanganyika Laughter Epidemic

Laughter is the best medicine, but it can also be a most perplexing symptom. In 1962, a laughter epidemic struck students at a girls’ boarding school in Tanganyika (now Tanzania). The mysterious giggles first appeared in January in a town called Kashasha, where three students began hysterically laughing from completely out of nowhere. Despite efforts to calm the girls, their perpetual howling was contagious, as dozens of other students also began experiencing laughing fits that lasted anywhere from a few hours to 16 days.

Doctors were unable to explain the phenomenon, and the root cause remains unclear even today. Some historians believe that the laughter was a visceral reaction to living in such a strict cultural environment, but that theory is far from certain. With no idea about how to quell unstoppable laughter, the school had no choice but to temporarily close in March, but that decision only led to more problems. As the girls returned home, they mysteriously “infected” each of their communities with the same insatiable urge to laugh uncontrollably. Laughter spread like wildfire throughout the country, leading to 14 separate school closures and affecting more than 1,000 people. It took roughly two years for the epidemic to completely dissipate, and thankfully, nobody suffered any long-term medical effects during that time.

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How 5 Historical Figures Stayed in Shape

Teddy Roosevelt on a horse

In an era dominated by high-tech home gyms and viral workout videos, the pursuit of physical fitness may seem like a distinctly modern preoccupation. But physical activity has long been an integral part of daily life. From ancient philosophers sculpted by rigorous training to intellectuals who advocated for the importance of diet and exercise as part of a holistic approach to well-being, history is filled with people who placed a premium on their physical fitness.

Here are five renowned historical figures who aren’t typically remembered for their athleticism, but whose commitment to exercise profoundly influenced their lives. The paths they took to stay physically fit varied widely, reflecting the diverse approaches people have taken to fitness throughout history.

Plato (427-348 BCE)

Plato, one of the three ancient Greek philosophers (along with Socrates and Aristotle) attributed with building the philosophical foundation of Western culture, was educated in both mental and physical pursuits. Like other Athenian boys, Plato was trained in a variety of physical activities, including gymnastics, wrestling, archery, boxing, and riding. His given name was Aristocles, but it may have been his broad-shouldered physique that earned him the name Plato, from “platos,” the Greek word for “broad.” Before turning to philosophy, Plato put his physicality to use as a skilled wrestler competing in the Isthmian Games, an event similar to the ancient Greek Olympics. “Lack of activity destroys the condition of every human being,” he wrote, “while movement and methodical physical exercise save it and preserve it.”

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)

Leonardo da Vinci not only is recognized as one of the great artists of the Renaissance era, but also represents the archetype of the multitalented “Renaissance man.” Best known for his paintings, including the enigmatic “Mona Lisa” and the iconic “Last Supper,” Leonardo was fascinated with the human form, an interest that can be found throughout his artistic and scientific work. His belief that the human body represented a microcosm of the universe is reflected in his oft-reproduced “Vitruvian Man” sketches, which depict what he believed to be the ideal male body. In his own lifetime, Leonardo was known for his athleticism and strength, and his superior physical fitness can be attributed to a number of athletic pursuits, including fencing, riding, and swimming.

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

As a pioneer for women’s rights in the late 18th century, Mary Wollstonecraft was concerned about women strengthening their bodies as well as their intellect. She saw physical exercise as a means of empowerment and liberation from societal constraints and believed that physical activity not only strengthened the body but also cultivated mental fortitude and independence. “The woman who strengthens her body and exercises her mind will, by managing her family and practicing various virtues, become the friend, and not the humble dependent on her husband,” she wrote in her 1792 treatise A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Wollstonecraft incorporated rigorous physical activity into her own life, which included taking long walks and horseback riding through the countryside.

Credit: George Rinhart/ Corbis Historical via Getty Image

Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919)

After a childhood plagued by severe asthma, President Theodore Roosevelt, known for being an outdoorsman and conservationist, pushed himself physically to maintain his health and build his physical strength and stamina. To that end, he pursued a number of challenging activities, including horseback riding, boxing, climbing, polo, swimming, tennis, and martial arts such as jiujitsu and judo. In fact, Roosevelt’s interest in martial arts led him to become the first American to earn a brown belt in judo. During his years in the White House, Roosevelt even had a boxing ring where he could train or spar with professional boxers, such as John L. Sullivan.

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Harry Houdini (1874-1926)

Harry Houdini’s name is synonymous with magic. The enigmatic illusionist’s awe-inspiring ability to escape from seemingly impossible situations captivated audiences, but behind his feats of illusion was a rigorous dedication to staying in peak physical condition. Before he became a world-famous magician, Houdini transformed himself physically through weight lifting, swimming, running, and boxing. As a magician, his training regimen included cold water plunges as well as exercises to enhance his dexterity, flexibility, strength, and breath control, enabling him to contort his body, navigate confined spaces, and hold his breath for more than three minutes.

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Strange Parenting Etiquette From the Past

Baby cage outside window

Being a parent has been a demanding job since the dawn of humanity. While modern-day parents have access to a plethora of parenting resources and tools across social media, blogs, and podcasts, well-meaning — if not entirely well-informed — figures have offered advice about child-rearing for centuries.

Parenting advice became more widespread throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, when perceptions about childhood began to shift toward the belief that children are entitled to dependence and innocence rather than hard work and responsibilities in their formative years. Most of the advice on taking care of infants and children was morally guided, versus scientifically, and as a result, such advice often sounds strange or even downright alarming by our contemporary standards.

From giving babies alcohol to smearing lard on their skin and denying snacks to older children, here is some of the strangest parenting etiquette from decades past.

A Spoonful of Opium Keeps the Tears Away

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In an era before evidence-based medicine, parents often relied on dubious remedies to treat common childhood ailments. Substances such as Stickney and Poor’s Pure Paregoric syrup and Godfrey’s Cordial were commonly given to babies in the 19th century to relieve gas, soothe teething pain, and treat unexplained fussiness. The secret ingredients? Alcohol and opium.

Mrs. Winslow’s Soothing Syrup was also a popular treatment at the time. The syrup was advertised as a method of pacifying young children, helping with dental hygiene, and alleviating constipation, and it was said to be suitable for babies as young as newborns. While the vibrant marketing featured cheerful imagery of happy babies and mothers, the syrup, a concoction that included morphine and alcohol, resulted in the loss of thousands of children until it was denounced by the American Medical Association in the early 1900s.

These were far from the only bizarre remedies peddled before modern medicine. Many teething treatments contained mercury, even though administering them could result in “pink disease,” which caused discoloration of the skin, sensitivity to light, swelling of the hands and feet, and, in severe cases, neurological symptoms.

Babies Should Be “Aired Out”

In 1894, alongside advice on bathing and diapering, Dr. Luther Emmett Holt introduced the concept of “airing” infants in his book The Care and Feeding of Children. Fresh air, he believed, would renew and purify the blood and was just as important as feeding.

Holt suggested babies be placed in cribs near an open window starting at 1 month old. Airing could take place in almost any temperature as long as the baby was dressed appropriately and the wind wasn’t blowing in their face. He even advocated for babies napping outside in their carriages, insisting that children who did this were stronger than indoor sleepers. “Appetite is improved, the digestion is better, the cheeks become red, and all signs of health are seen” after airing, according to Holt.

The practice of “airing” babies subsequently gained traction, and in the early 1900s, people even began placing babies in boxes on flat roofs. Baby cages also soon appeared as a way for city-dwelling parents to provide their babies with that all-important fresh air from the comfort of an enclosed frame suspended from a windowsill.

Oil and Salt Baths for Newborns

Credit: Mahantesh C Morabad/ Alamy Stock Photo

Babies are born with a substance known as vernix covering their skin, and while modern medicine suggests leaving it on to protect the delicate newborn skin, advice historically suggested removing it almost immediately by rubbing the baby in something greasy.

“As soon as the [umbilical] cord and the eyes have received the proper attention and the mother has been made comfortable, the baby is given its initial bath of oil,” William S. Sadler and Lena K. Sadler suggested in The Mother and Her Child. “This oil may be lard, olive oil, sweet oil, or liquid vaseline.” The oil was warmed before application and then wiped off with a soft cloth shortly after.

Following this initial oil-based bath, Pye Henry Chavasse suggested babies be bathed every morning and at least partially wiped down every evening. Once the baby reached 2 months of age, Chavasse recommended putting two handfuls of table salt in the baby’s bathwater, which he suggested would “brace and strengthen” the baby.

Toilet Training at 4 Months Old

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Early toilet training was common in the past, with some manuals advising parents to start as soon as just 4 months old — which is, on average, roughly eight months before babies even start walking (and more than one year earlier than average contemporary toilet training recommendations).

This begs the question: Without being able to walk oneself to the toilet, how exactly did a baby learn to use one? According to the Sadlers’ The Mother and Her Child, it was up to the caretaker to bring the toilet to them. “Any mother, caretaker, or nurse … will observe the time carefully and will catch the child on nearly every occasion before an accident occurs,” the advice read. “The nurse or mother places [a] receptacle in her lap and holds the child gently and carefully upon it.”

With this method, babies were expected to be able to control their urination by the time they were 8 or 9 months old. By the age of 1, the Sadlers expected babies to be out of diapers entirely.

Don’t Show Affection

By the end of the 19th century, children were increasingly viewed as innocent and dependent beings instead of little adults, but it was still uncommon for them to receive much affection from their parents.

In the early 1900s, John B. Watson, an American psychologist known for his role in developing the field of behaviorism, stated that children should not receive “too much mother love.” He argued in 1928’s Psychological Care of Infant and Child that children should be greeted with a handshake in the morning, should not be allowed to sit in a parent’s lap, and should never be hugged or kissed, save for a peck on the forehead at bedtime.

Watson wasn’t alone in his hands-off approach to parenting. In the aforementioned guide The Care and Feeding of Children, Dr. Holt said rocking a baby was not recommended, calling it “a habit easily acquired, but hard to break, and a very useless” tactic for soothing a baby.

The Sadlers felt much the same, advising in The Mother and Her Child that the baby be handled as little as possible lest it become spoiled. “If we sow indulgence we shall reap anger, selfishness, irritability, ‘unbecomingness’ — the spoiled child,” the guide warned. “Turn [the baby] occasionally from side to side, feed it, change it, keep it warm, and let it alone.”

No Lunch, No Snacks

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Not unlike the control they were meant to exert over physical affection and bodily functions, parents in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were advised to maintain complete authority over what their children ate. Meal schedules were firm and snacking was limited. “If he want anything to eat between breakfast and dinner let him have a piece of dry bread,” Chavasse wrote in 1868’s Advice to a Mother on the Management of Her Children. “If he have eaten very heartily at dinner, and, like Oliver Twist, ‘asks for more!’ give him, to satisfy his craving, a piece of dry bread. He will never eat more of that than will do him good.”

Similarly, Cassell’s Household Guide from 1869 told parents not to feed children between meals and to stick to a schedule, saying kids should not be “exposed to the sight of tempting food at unsuitable times.” To this day, experts still espouse the benefits of childhood routines and schedules — even if the guidelines around meal times and snacking habits are a far cry from the restrictive rules of the past.

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