Why Is 13 Considered an Unlucky Number?

Unlucky number 13

The number 13 has long been considered unlucky in many Western cultures. Even today — in a world far less superstitious than it was in the past — a surprising amount of people have a genuine, deep-rooted fear of the number 13, known as triskaidekaphobia. For this reason, many hotels don’t list the presence of a 13th floor (Otis Elevators reports 85% of its elevator panels omit the number), and many airlines skip row 13. And the more specific yet directly connected fear of Friday the 13th, known as paraskevidekatriaphobia, results in financial losses in excess of $800 million annually in the United States as significant numbers of people avoid traveling, getting married, or even working on the unlucky day.

But why is 13 considered such a harbinger of misfortune? What has led to this particular number being associated with bad luck? While historians and academics aren’t entirely sure of the exact origins of the superstition, there are a handful of historical, religious, and mythological matters that may have combined to create the very real fear surrounding the number 13.

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The Code of Hammurabi

The Code of Hammurabi was one of the earliest and most comprehensive legal codes to be proclaimed and written down. It dates back to the Babylonian King Hammurabi, who reigned from 1792 to 1750 BCE. Carved onto a massive stone pillar, the code set out some 282 rules, including fines and punishments for various misdeeds, but the 13th rule was notably missing. The artifact is often cited as one of the earliest recorded instances of 13 being perceived as unlucky and therefore omitted. Some scholars argue, however, that it was simply a clerical error. Either way, it may well have contributed to the long-standing negative associations surrounding the number 13.

The Trickster God Loki

The idea of 13 being unlucky may have originated with, or at least have been bolstered by, a story in Norse mythology involving the trickster god Loki. In this particular myth, 12 gods are having a dinner party at Valhalla when a 13th — and uninvited — guest arrives. It is the mischievous Loki, who sets about contriving a situation in which Hoder, the blind god of darkness, fatally shoots Balder the Beautiful, the god of joy and gladness, with an arrow. It’s possible that this ill-fated myth helped cement the number’s connection to chaos and misfortune in Nordic cultures, and in Western civilization more widely.

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The Last Supper

Christianity has also helped fuel the superstition surrounding the number 13. In the New Testament — as in Norse mythology — there is a fateful gathering centered around a meal, in this case the Last Supper. At the dinner, Jesus Christ gathers with his Twelve Apostles — making 13 attendees in total. Judas Iscariot, the apostle who betrayed Jesus, is often considered to have been the 13th guest to sit down at the Last Supper, which might have contributed to the number’s negative connotation. This, in turn, may have led to the notion of Friday the 13th being a day of misfortune or malevolence, as the Last Supper (with its 13 attendees) was on a Thursday, and the next day was Friday, the day of the crucifixion.

A Notorious Neighbor

It’s also possible that 13 gained a bad reputation because of the squeaky-clean nature of the number 12. In Christian numerology, 12 symbolizes God’s power and authority and carries a notion of completeness (a concept also found in pre-Christian societies). Its neighboring numeral may have suffered as a result, being seen as conflicting with this sense of goodness and perfection, further adding to the potent and enduring idea that the number 13 is unlucky.

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6 Famous Members of the Skull and Bones Secret Society

Skull and Crossbones stone

In 1832, Yale University students William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft co-founded “The Order of the Skull and Bones,” a secret society that has gone on to become one of the most elite organizations of its kind in the United States. For almost two centuries, Skull and Bones has been a subject of much fascination, speculation, and suspicion. Its members have included some of the most influential and powerful figures in American history — including three U.S. presidents — and its secrecy has fueled numerous conspiracy theories and rumors about the society’s true nature and purpose.

Over the years, several strange secrets about Skull and Bones have been revealed. According to some accounts, new members are — or once were — made to lie naked in a stone coffin while describing their most intimate secrets and experiences. And the society’s headquarters — a stark, windowless brownstone building in New Haven, Connecticut, called “The Tomb” — is rumored to house a number of macabre artifacts, including the skulls of the Apache warrior Geronimo and the Mexican revolutionary Pancho Villa. Perhaps of greater import to the Bonesmen and Boneswomen, as initiates are known (women were granted membership in 1992), is the promise that all members are guaranteed lifelong financial stability — in exchange, of course, for their absolute loyalty and secrecy.

Despite this secretive nature, many prominent individuals have been identified as members of Skull and Bones. (Up until 1971, the society published an annual membership register.) Here are six of the most influential known members of the secret society.

William Howard Taft, 27th President of the United States

William Howard Taft served as president of the United States from 1909 to 1913, and later as chief justice of the United States — he is the only person to have held both positions. The young Taft was initiated as a Bonesman in 1878, which was no surprise as his father, Alphonso Taft, was the society’s co-founder. It’s hard to say how much bearing Skull and Bones had on Taft’s career, but he rose rapidly after Yale and was appointed a judge while still in his 20s. He became a federal circuit judge at 34, and in 1900 was sent to the Philippines by President William McKinley to serve as chief civil administrator — a political position that set him on the path to the White House.

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Walter Camp, Father of American Football

Walter Camp, often referred to as the “father of American football,” was initiated into Skull and Bones in 1880. He was a college football player and coach at Yale, during which time he played a pivotal role in shaping the rules and strategies of the game. Camp’s changes included the introduction of the quarterback role, reducing the team size to 11 from 15, and replacing the traditional scrum of British rugby with the scrimmage. He served on Yale’s athletic committee for nearly 50 years, influencing not just football but collegiate athletics as a whole, and is widely considered his generation’s most influential champion of athletic sports.

Henry Luce, Magazine Magnate

Henry Luce was a hugely influential publisher who founded Time magazine, Life magazine, Fortune, and Sports Illustrated. Before he became one of the most powerful figures in the history of American journalism, Luce was a member of Skull and Bones. He was initiated in 1920 alongside his best friend Briton Hadden, with whom he co-founded Time in 1923. Hadden died six years after Time was first published, leaving Luce in sole control of the magazine. As with all new members of Skull and Bones, Luce was assigned a secret name — in his case, “Baal.” Many Bonesmen were given names from literature, myth, or religion, such as Hamlet, Uncle Remus, Sancho Panza, Thor, and Odin.

Lyman Spitzer, Theoretical Physicist

Skull and Bones has had its fair share of scientifically minded members, including climatologist William Welch Kellogg and physicist John B. Goodenough (recipient of the 2019 Nobel Prize for chemistry). Then there was Lyman Spitzer, a theoretical physicist and astronomer who joined Skull and Bones in 1935. Spitzer made significant contributions to several fields of astrophysics, including research into star formation and plasma physics. He was also the first person to propose the idea for a space-based observatory, which he detailed in his 1946 paper “Astronomical Advantages of an Extra-Terrestrial Observatory.” His idea later became reality in 1977, when NASA, along with the European Space Agency, took the concept and began developing what became the Hubble Space Telescope.

George H.W. Bush, 41st President of the United States

George H.W. Bush was a notable student during his time at Yale. He was accepted into Phi Beta Kappa, a prestigious academic honor society; he captained the Yale baseball team that played in the first two College World Series; and he was a member of the Yale cheerleading squad. He was a worthy candidate for Skull and Bones, which he was initiated into in 1948. Later, of course, Bush became the second Bonesman to occupy the Oval Office, when he was sworn in as the 41st president of the United States in 1989. Bush wasn’t the first of his family to join Skull and Bones, though. His father, U.S. Senator Prescott Bush, was initiated in 1917, while his uncle George Herbert Walker Jr. joined a decade later. Bush’s son, George W. Bush (the 43rd president of the United States), continued the family tradition when he too was initiated in 1968.

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John Kerry, U.S. Secretary of State

On the other end of the political spectrum, plenty of Bonesmen have gone on to become members of the Democratic Party, the most famous of which is John Kerry, initiated in 1966. Prior to serving as secretary of state under Barack Obama, Kerry was the Democratic nominee for president in the 2004 election — and his opponent was none other than fellow Bonesman George W. Bush. When Kerry was asked what he could say about the significance of both him and Bush being Skull and Bones members, he simply and dutifully replied, “Not much, because it’s a secret.”

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Why Were Old Bridges Covered?

Covered bridge in Vermont

Covered bridges are an idyllic symbol of rural America. These charming, often hand-built structures have been romanticized in popular culture for years, from Thomas Kinkade’s painting “The Old Covered Bridge” to the novel (and film adaptation) The Bridges of Madison County. Despite their dispensability in the age of concrete and steel, these old wooden bridges continue to be beloved landmarks, their distinct roofs making them easily recognizable even today. But what exactly led to their proliferation in decades past?

A covered bridge is exactly what its name suggests: a bridge with a roof and enclosed sides, typically constructed from wood. The reason for the covering is quite simple. While there are some theories — most likely with some truth to them — that the roofs were added to keep animals calm above rushing water, or to provide shelter for travelers, the real purpose was much more practical. Wooden bridges, which were common in the U.S. and Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries due to the abundance of timber, deteriorated quickly when exposed to the elements. Rain, snow, and sunlight caused the wood to rot or warp, compromising the materials’ integrity and reducing the lifespan of the bridge. Covering the structure protected the wooden framework and deck. By keeping the timber dry, the bridge’s life could be extended by decades. Uncovered wooden bridges might last just 10 to 20 years, whereas some of America’s original covered bridges, such as the Hyde Hall Bridge in New York’s Glimmerglass State Park, remain intact almost 200 years after being built.

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When Did We Start Giving Each Other Wedding Rings?

Wedding bands

In weddings around the world, exchanging rings is a crucial part of the ceremony, a moment in which a couple’s promises are sealed with a tangible token. This simple piece of jewelry does a lot of heavy lifting: It acts as a symbol of love, unity, and eternity, while also making our relationship status clear to the world. Various cultures have contributed to the history of the wedding ring, from its ancient beginnings to the relatively recent advent of the double-ring exchanges popular today. But when and how exactly did this time-honored tradition begin?

It’s believed the ancient Romans were the first people to use wedding rings in a way resembling the modern custom, although exchanging rings as symbols of eternity or affection dates back even earlier to ancient Egypt and Greece. Roman weddings were not like the elaborate, picturesque affairs of today, however; marriages were often less about romance and more about family alliances and property. After a marriage contract was signed and a feast was had, there was a procession to the couple’s new home, where the bride was carried over the threshold. It was then that the groom presented the bride with a ring — not just as a gesture of affection, but as a public acknowledgment of their bond and a sign that she was now a part of his household. Romans first used copper and iron for the bands, but they began to favor gold after around the third century CE. In wealthier households, brides often had both: one ring, usually made of iron, to wear at home, and another fancier gold ring to present to the public.

The wedding ring was worn on the fourth finger of the left hand, a custom based on the belief that a vein — known as the vena amoris, or “vein of love” — connected this finger directly to the heart. This tradition may have originated in ancient Egypt, where rings were seen as symbols of eternity; the ring’s circular shape, with no beginning and no end, made it a powerful representation of infinity. While the vena amoris has since been proved anatomically incorrect, the symbolic ring placement on the left hand’s fourth finger remains customary. Though the Romans were the first to formalize the use of rings in a wedding ceremony, it’s believed they took a cue from the ancient Greek and Egyptian cultures. After Alexander the Great of Macedonia conquered Egypt in 332 BCE, the Greeks adopted the custom of giving rings as a sign of love — these tokens often featured motifs of Eros, the Greek god of love, known as Cupid in the Roman pantheon.

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The Most Popular Baby Name Every Year of the Last Century

Nurse with newborn babies

Over the past hundred years, baby-naming trends have largely been shaped by family traditions and popular culture. Classic names such as Mary, John, Betty, and James often appear repeatedly in family trees, passed down out of respect for previous generations and a desire to keep family legacies alive. By the latter half of the 20th century, parents found baby name inspiration in popular culture, including films, theater, and music. The name Jennifer, for instance, began its climb in the U.S. thanks to the George Bernard Shaw play The Doctor’s Dilemma, which debuted on Broadway in 1927. Today, Olivia and Liam are the reigning favorites, and it’s likely only a matter of time before names that are already in the top 10 — such as Mia, Mateo, Evelyn, and Elijah — claim the No. 1 spots.Here is a fascinating look at the most popular girls’ and boys’ names of the last century, based on data collected by the U.S. Social Security Administration from Social Security card applications.

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1924 to 1929

1924: Mary, Robert
1925: Mary, Robert
1926: Mary, Robert
1927: Mary, Robert
1928: Mary, Robert
1929: Mary, Robert

The “Roaring ’20s” brought new cultural, economic, and sexual freedoms for women, but the most popular female names of the Greatest Generation — those born between 1901 and 1927 — didn’t reflect this newfound sense of liberation. Mary remained the most popular girls’ name from 1924 to 1929, just as it had since 1900. A biblical name that appears in both the Old and New Testaments, Mary is the anglicized form of Maria and originated from the Hebrew Miryam. In 1924, the name Robert, favored by European royalty and nobility in the Middle Ages,” replaced John, another common biblical name, as the most popular boys’ name, ending John’s decades-long place at the top of the list.

1930s

1930: Mary, Robert
1931: Mary, Robert
1932: Mary, Robert
1933: Mary, Robert
1934: Mary, Robert
1935: Mary, Robert
1936: Mary, Robert
1937: Mary, Robert
1938: Mary, Robert
1939: Mary, Robert

The end of the 1920s represented the beginning of the Silent Generation, which continued until 1945. For children born in the 1930s, it was an era marked by scarcity, sacrifice, and traditional values. This generation is also known as the Traditionalist Generation, and the most popular baby names of the 1930s reflect that characteristic: As in the second half of the 1920s, Mary and Robert remained the most popular female and male names, respectively, throughout the decade.

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1940s

1940: Mary, James
1941: Mary, James
1942: Mary, James
1943: Mary, James
1944: Mary, James
1945: Mary, James
1946: Mary, James
1947: Linda, James
1948: Linda, James
1949: Linda, James

With the end of the Silent Generation in 1945, a new era of baby boomers — so named for the “baby boom” that happened after World War II — was born. After decades as the No. 1 female name, Mary lost that designation when Linda claimed the top spot in 1947, boosted by the popularity of Jack Lawrence’s 1946 song “Linda.”For boys’ names, Robert’s 16-year reign at the top came to an end at the beginning of the decade, when James — a staple on the top 100 most popular names thanks to both its biblical and royal associations — took the No. 1 spot in 1940 and stayed there until 1952.

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1950s

1950: Linda, James
1951: Linda, James
1952: Linda, James
1953: Mary, Robert
1954: Mary, Michael
1955: Mary, Michael
1956: Mary, Michael
1957: Mary, Michael
1958: Mary, Michael
1959: Mary, Michael

Linda continued to be the top female name at the start of the 1950s but swapped places with Mary (again) in 1953, when Mary reclaimed the No. 1 spot and stayed there for the rest of the decade. Meanwhile, three different boys’ names saw the No. 1 spot during the 1950s. James remained at the top for three years before Robert returned as the No. 1 name for just one year in 1953. In 1954, Robert slipped to No. 2 behind Michael — a biblical name historically associated with emperors, kings, and saints — which remained the most popular male name for the rest of the decade.

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1960s

1960: Mary, David
1961: Mary, Michael
1962: Lisa, Michael
1963: Lisa, Michael
1964: Lisa, Michael
1965: Lisa, Michael
1966: Lisa, Michael
1967: Lisa, Michael
1968: Lisa, Michael
1969: Lisa, Michael

In 1960 and 1961, Mary was once again the most popular female name in the nation. In 1961, Lisa appeared on the list of the top five most popular names for the first time, coming in second behind Mary. The following year, Lisa surpassed Mary as the No. 1 female name, and stayed in the top spot for the rest of the decade. David, which first appeared in the top five most popular male names in 1948 and continually ranked between No. 2 and No. 5 for the next 12 years, finally took the top spot in 1960. Its reign was short-lived, though: David was bumped in 1961 by perennial favorite Michael, making 1960 the only year David has ever held the No. 1 spot, despite being in the top five 39 times over the past century.

1970s

1970: Jennifer, Michael
1971: Jennifer, Michael
1972: Jennifer, Michael
1973: Jennifer, Michael
1974: Jennifer, Michael
1975: Jennifer, Michael
1976: Jennifer, Michael
1977: Jennifer, Michael
1978: Jennifer, Michael
1979: Jennifer, Michael

Generation X, which includes people born between 1965 and 1980, introduced a generation of “latchkey kids,” children of dual-income or divorced parents whose free-range childhoods led them to be characterized as independent, resourceful, and cynical. Jennifer, which first appeared in the top five most popular female names in 1968, took the top spot in 1970 and stayed there throughout the 1970s and into the 1980s. Michael, which had dominated the top of the list since the mid-1950s, continued as No. 1 throughout the decade. Three names — James, Christopher, and Jason — vied for the No. 2 spot over the course of the decade, but neither Christopher nor Jason ever reached No. 1, unlike James, which had previously held that spot for 13 years.

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1980s

1980: Jennifer, Michael
1981: Jennifer, Michael
1982: Jennifer, Michael
1983: Jennifer, Michael
1984: Jennifer, Michael
1985: Jessica, Michael
1986: Jessica, Michael
1987: Jessica, Michael
1988: Jessica, Michael
1989: Jessica, Michael

The year 1981 marked the start of Generation Y, better known as millennials. This generation grew up during a time of major technological advancements, including personal computers and internet access. During the early 1980s, Jennifer continued to hold the top spot as the most popular female name, but 1985 saw another three-syllable “J” name take the lead: Jessica. This name may have appealed to parents who wanted a trendier “J” name than Jennifer, but the first recorded instance of Jessica actually dates back to William Shakespeare’s play, The Merchant of Venice. Meanwhile, Michael enjoyed another decade at No. 1, while Christopher remained No. 2 throughout the 1980s and into the 1990s, never quite surpassing the popularity of Michael.

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1990s

1990: Jessica, Michael
1991: Ashley, Michael
1992: Ashley, Michael
1993: Jessica, Michael
1994: Jessica, Michael
1995: Jessica, Michael
1996: Emily, Michael
1997: Emily, Michael
1998: Emily, Michael
1999: Emily, Jacob

In 1993, the World Wide Web launched, introducing a whole new way of learning and communicating. The millennial generation came to a close in the mid-1990s, and 1997 is considered the beginning of Generation Z, also called “zoomers.” Jessica bounced between No. 1 and No. 2 for most of the decade before disappearing from the top five in 1998. Ashley, a name more commonly given to boys prior to the 1960s, held the lead in 1991 and 1992, but slipped to No. 2, No. 3, and No. 5 for the rest of the decade. Emily, another appealing “-ly” name, appeared in the top five in 1993 and held the lead for 13 years, starting in 1996. And after holding the No. 1 spot as the most popular male name for 44 of the previous 45 years, Michael was dethroned in 1999 by Jacob, a name that first appeared in the top five in 1995.

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2000s

2000: Emily, Jacob
2001: Emily, Jacob
2002: Emily, Jacob
2003: Emily, Jacob
2004: Emily, Jacob
2005: Emily, Jacob
2006: Emily, Jacob
2007: Emily, Jacob
2008: Emily, Jacob
2009: Isabella, Jacob

The year 2001 marked the beginning of the second millennium CE, but the occasion didn’t have an impact on the most popular baby names for the youngest Gen Zers. Though computers and the internet changed the way millennials lived and worked, Generation Z is considered the first true digital native generation, as this cohort has never known a time when the internet wasn’t as close as their smartphone. Still, for older Gen X and millennial parents, sticking with tradition was the name of the name game in this booming digital era. Emily held the No. 1 spot for the entire decade until Isabella, which first appeared on the top five in 2006, took the lead in 2009. And Jacob, a biblical name with a more contemporary feel, replaced Michael after a long reign and remained No. 1 throughout this decade and into the next.

2010s

2010: Isabella, Jacob
2011: Sophia, Jacob
2012: Sophia, Jacob
2013: Sophia, Noah
2014: Emma, Noah
2015: Emma, Noah
2016: Emma, Noah
2017: Emma, Liam
2018: Emma, Liam
2019: Olivia, Liam

Those born in the 2010s are shaping up to be known as Generation Alpha. The oldest members are just entering their teen years and the qualities that will define their cohort are still being formed. That fact might be reflected in the number of names — four for girls and three for boys — that held the No. 1 spot over the decade. This decade saw a trend toward vintage and vintage-inspired names. Isabella started in the No. 1 spot just as it had ended the previous decade, but was displaced in 2011 by Sophia, which stayed at the top for three years before being replaced by Emma. Emma then stayed at No. 1 for four years, before Olivia claimed the No. 1 spot to finish the decade. Continuing its popularity from the previous decade, Jacob held the top spot as the most popular male name for three years before being unseated by Noah. Four years later, in 2017, Liam — a derivative of William that first appeared on the top five list in 2013 as the third most popular male name — replaced Noah as the most popular name for the rest of the decade.

2020s

2020: Olivia, Liam
2021: Olivia, Liam
2022: Olivia, Liam
2023: Olivia, Liam
2024: Olivia, Liam

We’re only a few years into this century’s ’20s, but the most popular baby names reflect how trends have shifted since the start of the new millennium. So far in this decade, Olivia and Liam are holding steady at No. 1, but old-fashioned names are making a notable comeback. Henry, which ranked as the 18th most popular male name in 1924, climbed to No. 8 in 2023, and Evelyn, which was the 12th most popular female name in 1924, was No. 9 in 2023. On the other hand, Robert and Mary, the two most popular names 100 years ago, now rank 89th and 135th in popularity, showing how much trends have changed in the last hundred years.

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Iconic Photos From Each Decade of the 20th Century

“Lunch Atop a Skyscraper,” 1932

In the mid-1820s, French inventor Joseph Nicéphore Niépce stood at an upstairs window of his estate in Saint-Loup-de-Varennes in Burgundy, France. In his hand he held a primitive camera. After at least eight hours of exposure, Niépce created the world’s first — or at least oldest surviving — photograph, known as “View From the Window at Le Gras.” In that moment, an entirely new medium was born.

Photography rapidly went from one first to another. In 1838, Louis Daguerre, inventor of the daguerreotype, shot the first photo to include people. In 1840, English scientist John W. Draper took the first photo of the moon. And in 1861, Scottish mathematical physicist James Clerk Maxwell produced the earliest color photograph. Advances continued apace, until another landmark — the first cellphone photo, in 1997 — launched an era in which cameras became ubiquitous, and the age of the selfie was born.

Throughout the 20th century, photographers captured images that ran the gamut of human experience. Here are some of the most iconic photos from each decade of the last century, from Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, to the far-flung reaches of the universe.

“First Flight,” 1903

On the morning of December 17, 1903, on the sand dunes 4 miles south of the fishing village of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, one of the most pivotal moments in human history was captured on camera. Once developed, the photo showed the moment that aviation pioneer Orville Wright took to the air in the world’s first successful airplane.

The Breaker Boys Photo, 1911

In 1908, the U.S. National Child Labor Committee hired sociologist and photographer Lewis Hine to photograph children at work in mills, mines, and factories. His photos of the “breaker boys” — children usually between the ages of 8 and 12 who worked in coal mines — helped build public support for legislation barring child labor.

“Le Violon d'Ingres,” 1924

“Le Violon d'Ingres” is a black-and-white photograph created by the American visual artist Man Ray. It features the model Kiki de Montparnasse, with two f-holes painted on her back to make her body resemble a violin. One of the most iconic images of the surrealist movement, it set a record in 2022 when it sold for $12.4 million, becoming the most expensive photo of all time.

“Lunch Atop a Skyscraper,” 1932

The 1930s were a decade of many iconic photos, from the Hindenburg zeppelin bursting into flames to a classic photo purporting to show the Loch Ness monster. Arguably the most famous, however, was a black-and-white portrait of 11 ironworkers eating lunch while sitting precariously on a steel beam 850 feet in the air, taken during the construction of Rockefeller Center in New York City.

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“Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima,” 1945

World War II heralded a new era of war photography, much of it more intimate and at times more harrowing than anything previously seen. One of the most recognizable images was taken by Joe Rosenthal of the Associated Press on February 23, 1945. It shows six United States Marines raising the American flag atop Mount Suribachi during the Battle of Iwo Jima. Three of the Marines were killed in action during the battle, but their image remains a timeless portrayal of troops at war.

“The Scream Image,” 1957

In 1957, photographer Will Counts took a series of photos during the Central High School desegregation crisis in Little Rock, Arkansas. One of his photos, sometimes known as “The Scream Image,” shows Black student Elizabeth Eckford being harassed by white students in front of the school. Instantly iconic, the image became a key symbol of the Civil Rights Movement.

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“Earthrise,” 1968

On Christmas Eve in 1968, the crew of Apollo 8 saw a spectacular sight as they orbited the moon: the Earth appearing above the lunar horizon. Astronaut Bill Anders took a photo, which became known as “Earthrise.” Not only was it the first color photograph of Earth taken from space, but it also inspired a generation to think more seriously about our planet. The image is now widely credited with advancing the global environmental movement.

Nixon Gives the “V” Sign, 1974

The 1970s were characterized by political upheaval on a global scale, with frequent coups, domestic conflicts, and civil wars. In the U.S., the decade was marked by the Vietnam War, President Richard Nixon’s term, and the Watergate scandal. This iconic image shows Nixon waving goodbye from the steps of his helicopter as he leaves the White House after his farewell address on August 9, 1974.

“Tank Man,” 1989

From a sixth-floor balcony of the Beijing Hotel, Jeff Widener of the Associated Press took one of the most recognizable photos of all time. Below him, in Tiananmen Square, a lone man bravely stood in front of a column of tanks, repeatedly changing his position in order to obstruct their attempted advance. Widener’s photo is a classic image of resistance, though the lone protester has never been identified.

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“Pillars of Creation,” 1995

Photography is literally light-years ahead of where it was when Joseph Nicéphore Niépce took the first photo in history from his upstairs window. “The Pillars of Creation” — arguably the Hubble Space Telescope’s most iconic image — shows a section of the Eagle Nebula star cluster located some 7,000 light-years from Earth. It features three huge, fingerlike columns formed of interstellar gas and dust, where the process of creating new stars takes place, all captured in a truly awe-inspiring photograph.

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What Was America’s Population Through History?

Historic people on map of U.S.

The first inhabitants of what is now the United States appeared around 15,000 to 20,000 years ago — a blip in time compared to the annals of some of the earliest places humans lived. Initially, population growth was slow due to the continent’s geographic isolation; significant increases began only after Europeans made their way to the Americas throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. By the 20th century, the U.S. population was experiencing rapid expansion — a trend that has slowed in recent years. Here’s a look at America’s changing population through history, from early prehistoric arrivals to the decline we’re seeing today.

Credit: Illustration courtesy of Madison Hunt

Prehistory

The North American continent was inhabited by prehistoric humans, although they arrived much later than humans in other parts of the world. While early human species have been around for millions of years, the first people didn’t make their way to North America until sometime between 20,000 BCE and 13,000 BCE. It’s believed they traveled via the Bering Land Bridge from modern-day Siberia to Alaska, although exactly when and how they first arrived is still a matter of debate. The number of people who were around in this era is debated as well, and while estimates vary, it’s believed some 230,000 people were living in America by 10,000 BCE.

Antiquity

By 1 CE, an estimated 640,000 people were living in what is now the United States. Indigenous peoples developed agricultural practices that helped to define their communities, especially along the Mississippi watershed. By 1100 CE, a settlement known as Cahokia, located across the Mississippi River from modern-day St. Louis, was home to about 20,000 people. The population continued to grow throughout the land, and by 1400, there were an estimated 1.74 million people in the modern-day U.S.

When Christopher Columbus landed in the Caribbean in 1492, that number had increased by nearly 150,000 people. But in the years that followed, as other European explorers began to map and claim parts of North America, waves of disease, displacement, and conflict had a major effect on the population. Within 100 years of the first European landing in the New World, an estimated 85% to 90% of the Americas’ Indigenous population was wiped out. In the modern-day United States alone, the population dropped almost 60% between the years 1500 and 1600, from 1.89 million to 779,000.

Colonial Era

By the early 1600s, Spanish and English explorers had established permanent settlements in what is now St. Augustine, Florida, and Jamestown, Virginia, and by the mid-1600s, the Pilgrims had established themselves in modern-day Massachusetts. By 1700, the population of the colonies had grown to an estimated 250,000. Official population estimates at the time did not include Indigenous peoples, an omission that wasn’t corrected until the late 19th century; scholars who later attempted to include Indigenous populations in the count put it closer to 900,000. In 1776, when the U.S. gained independence from England, the known population had surged to approximately 2.5 million — but the new country was about to undergo even more transformation.

Industrial Revolution

The period of time from the American Revolution through the end of World War II saw explosive population growth. In 1790, the first official U.S. Census Bureau counted 3.9 million Americans living in the country. This era coincided with the start of the Industrial Revolution, a transformative time in the Western world. Technological innovation not only marked a societal shift from agrarian to industrial economies, but also spurred rapid urbanization. The era saw improvements in working conditions, sanitation, and medical care, too, making life expectancy longer than ever before. Ten years after the first U.S. census, in 1800, the population had shot up by almost 1.4 million people to reach 5.3 million. That surged to 23 million by 1850, fueled largely by a wave of European immigration to the U.S. By 1900, the country was home to 76 million people, a number that also reflected the country’s Indigenous residents. America’s population continued to grow during the early 20th century, reaching about 148 million by 1945.

Baby Boom

The post-World War II era saw a dramatic increase in birth rates — a trend that famously became known as the baby boom. The sharp rise was due to a number of factors, key among them being economic prosperity, soldiers returning from war, and a cultural emphasis on family life. By the time the boom tapered off in 1964, some 76 million babies had been born, and these new citizens made up almost 40% of the country’s population of almost 197 million.

Today

In 2024, the U.S. Census Bureau counted America’s population at 337 million people. And while that’s an all-time high, the rate of growth has been slowing down. The baby boom was followed by a period of lower birth rates, which remain on a downward slope. Meanwhile, an aging population means death rates are projected to meet or exceed births.

The postwar period also saw changes in U.S. immigration policy, including the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, which did away with previous immigration quotas, opening the doors to more new Americans. Immigration has been the main driver of the country’s population growth since 1970, and that trend is expected to continue. In 2023, the Census Bureau projected that sustaining diverse immigration will help to balance the effects of an aging population. Still, despite a projected global population increase of nearly 2 billion people in the next 30 years, the U.S. population is expected to peak at around 370 million by 2080, then decline slightly to 366 million by 2100.

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Strange Workplace Etiquette of the 1960s

1960s workplace

The 1960s were a decade of profound social change in the U.S., as movements for civil rights and gender equality gained momentum across the country. While the standard American workplace was not immune to these changes, etiquette on the job still tended to reflect postwar traditionalism and formality. In offices of all kinds, people were expected to dress up and respect their superiors. Women held lower positions that didn’t pay nearly as much as men’s roles, racial diversity was sorely lacking, and behaviors that are now considered unhealthy and unprofessional could be everyday occurrences on the job. Here are some of the more surprising aspects of workplace etiquette during the 1960s.

Credit: Heritage Images/ Hulton Archive via Getty Images

Smoking at the Office

Today, the thought of people puffing away on cigarettes at their desks seems too bizarre to have ever been the norm. But in the 1960s, approximately 42% of American adults were smokers. The habit was common at just about every workplace, and it was normal to see smoke filling the air and full ashtrays not only in business offices, but also in hospital halls, airplanes, and more. In 1964, the U.S. Surgeon General released its first report on smoking and health, definitively linking cigarette smoke with dangerous health problems. Smoking nonetheless remained ubiquitous in the workplace throughout the 1960s and for decades to follow, until most U.S. workplaces banned the practice in the 1990s and early 2000s.

Imbibing on the Job

As depicted in the hit TV series Mad Men, it was common to see well-stocked bar carts or bottles of spirits tucked into desk drawers in the 1960s. It was also common for executives at big-city advertising agencies and corporate firms to head to nearby bars for what became known as a “three martini lunch.” After a leisurely, booze-soaked break, the execs would put in a little more time at the office before heading back to the bar with co-workers for more cocktails after work.

Credit: Harold M. Lambert/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

Formal Attire

After World War II, many women started to incorporate more leisurely attire, such as pants, into their day-to-day wardrobe. But in the workplace, dresses and skirts — with stockings — were still preferred in the 1960s. Men dressed in suits and ties, but the silhouette became sleeker as bulky, sloped shoulders went out of style. Despite the decade’s fashion formalities, the idea of “casual Friday” also has its roots in the 1960s workplace. In Hawaii, the president of the Hawaiian Fashion Guild encouraged state politicians to wear Hawaiian shirts to work as a way to promote the local garment industry. The “Aloha Friday” trend had taken off in the state by the late 1960s, but trickled into the U.S. mainland more slowly, gaining widespread adoption in the 1990s.

Office Hierarchy

Workplaces in the 1960s adhered to formal hierarchies. There were clear distinctions between management and employees — often physically, with managers in private offices and employees in rooms where desks were placed side by side like a factory line. Communication was direct, usually in person, and people often used titles and surnames when addressing colleagues or superiors. In the early ’60s, cubicles were also introduced to office-based workplaces as a flexible “Action Office” concept designed by Herman Miller. It was a major departure from the traditional office layout, giving employees a more personalized experience.

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Once-Popular Baby Names You Never See Anymore

Newborn baby and mother

Much like fashion, the cyclical nature of baby names is influenced not only by cultural shifts, but also by historical events and popular media. For instance, in 1931, the name Bella was ranked No. 985 in the top 1,000 female names by the Social Security Administration, which uses Social Security card application data to determine the popularity of names, before falling off the list entirely for 69 years. We can’t be sure why the name made the list again in the year 2000, coming in at No. 749, but its rapid rise in popularity from there can be attributed to Bella Swan, the central character in Stephenie Meyer’s Twilight series, published between 2005 and 2008. Bella jumped in popularity to No. 122 in 2008, then to No. 58 the following year and No. 48 in 2010. The name remained on the list of the top 100 most popular female names through 2022, a trend bolstered by the film adaptations of the Twilight books.

While some popular names fade away only to come surging back many years later, others are perennial favorites decade after decade. Michael has been the No. 1 most popular male name for 44 of the past 100 years. On the female names list, Mary has taken the top spot 32 times and ranks as the overall most popular name of the past 100 years, despite falling as low as No. 135 over the years. The name James maintains the top spot for the most popular male name of the past century, though it has ranked as low as No. 19.

Old-fashioned names such as Harriet and Amos may make us think of our grandparents and a bygone era, but there is always a chance they’ll make a trendy comeback alongside more contemporary names such as Onyx, Anakin, and Nova (some of the top baby names in 2024). Here is a nostalgic look at eight vintage baby names that were once widely popular but have faded in use — at least for now.

Doris

Doris just squeaks onto the list of the 100 most popular names of the past 100 years at No. 98, despite the fact that it never cracked the top five in any year of the past century. Peaking at No. 6 in 1929, Doris didn’t even make the top 1,000 names in 2023. Doris Day, born Doris Kappelhoff in 1922, is arguably the most famous Doris of the past century. A popular singer and actress in the 1950s and ’60s, her wholesome girl-next-door image contrasted with the cultural shifts of the 1960s, which may account for the name’s decreasing popularity in the decades since.

Albert

Albert is an example of a male name that seems old-fashioned and outdated in the U.S., but is still going strong in the U.K. This might have something to do with the number of royals who have had the name — in the past 200 years, there have been 12 members of the British royal family named Albert. The popularity of Albert peaked in the U.S. in 1910, when it was the 14th most popular male name. It ranked at No. 590 in 2023 in the U.S., while in the U.K., Albert ranked 76th on the list of the top 100 names for boys in 2024.

Judith

Some old-fashioned names have never scored high on the popularity lists, but still consistently ranked in the top 50 or top 100 names for several decades. In a list of the top five female names in each year of the last century, Judith appears only once, as the fourth most popular name in 1940. Yet it was one of the top 50 most popular female names between 1936 and 1956. In overall rankings, Judith comes in at No. 62 in a list of the 100 top female names of the past century, but most of that popularity came in the first half of the century; the name hasn’t cracked the top 100 since the 1960s.

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Ernest

The name Ernest has had a long and popular history in the U.S., peaking at No. 21 on the list of the 1,000 most popular male names in 1885. It stayed in the top 100 until 1957 before a slow but steady drop saw it falling off the top 1,000 list entirely by 2019. Despite the name’s literary connections, including Ernest Hemingway and Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest, the decline of Ernest might have been due to its association with the fictional character Ernest P. Worrell, played by actor Jim Varney. Varney’s bumbling slapstick humor in television commercials, a TV series, and several feature films made the character a household name — though not one that parents wanted to give their babies.

Credit: Everett Collection, Inc./ Alamy Stock Photos

Mildred

In 1920, Mildred was the sixth most popular female name in the United States, but by 1985 it wasn’t even in the top 1,000. Mildred Pierce, a 1941 novel by James M. Cain that was adapted for film in 1945, may have helped sustain the name’s popularity well into the 1950s before it began a steady downward trend. While this old-fashioned name doesn’t seem poised for a comeback, the diminutive Millie ranked as the 102nd most popular female name in 2023 — its highest rank ever, thanks to the popularity of British actress Millie Bobby Brown.

Credit: H. Armstrong Roberts/ClassicStock/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

Ralph

From 1900 to 1963, Ralph consistently remained on the list of the top 100 most popular male names, peaking at No. 21 in 1917. From there, it drifted further and further down the list before making its final appearance in 2018 at No. 950. The decline in the name’s popularity likely had something to do with the unfortunate fact that the word “ralph” became a U.S. slang term for vomit in the mid-1960s.

Credit: George C. Beresford/ Hulton Archive via Getty Images

Gertrude

Despite being the 23rd most popular female name in 1900 and staying in the top 100 until 1930, the name Gertrude completely vanished from the top 1,000 names after 1965. The sharp decline of this old-fashioned name likely followed the same trajectory of Doris, falling out of favor as the cultural revolution swept the country, and names such as Lisa, Kimberly, and Michelle rose in popularity.

Virgil

The name Virgil is best known as the English name of Publius Vergilius Maro, the influential first-century Roman poet who penned the epic Aeneid. While the name has never been high on the list of the most popular male names, it cracked the top 100 names five times in the early 1900s and stayed in the top 500 until the mid-1970s. Virgil made its final appearance on the list of the top 1,000 male names in 1991 at No. 861, and some trend-watchers suggest it’s due for a comeback.

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The Strangest Suggestions From Old Advice Columns

Advice column, 1943

Websites such as Reddit, Quora, and JustAnswer have ushered in what The New Yorker recently called the “age of peak advice.” But people have long had a fondness for the old-fashioned advice column. The anonymity of the forum allows answer-seekers to sidestep embarrassment and participate in a virtual confessional. The advice column gained popularity in the U.S. in the late 1890s, catering mainly to women with a focus on social interactions, matters of the heart, and childcare. Marie Manning’s 1889 “Advice to the Lovelorn” column in the New York Evening Journal set the standard, incorporating the tone of conduct books for young women, which were popular in Britain in the 18th century, into its responses.

The majority of advice columns were written by women, but the publishing apparatus was controlled by men, leading to questions and replies that often reflected the sexist views of a patriarchal society. Countless columns reinforced the need for women to assume traditional gender roles such as marriage, homemaking, and child-rearing, while topics such as sexual orientation and adultery were rarely viewed with empathy or nuance.

During the 19th and 20th centuries, women known by the pen names Dorothy Dix, Abigail Van Buren (of “Dear Abby” fame), and Ann Landers (Van Buren’s twin sister!) became the most well-known and trusted advice-givers in America. Of course, social attitudes and customs have changed significantly over the decades, as has our understanding of science, and thus some of the advice that writers doled out seems pretty strange today. Here are five questionable tips from advice columns of yesteryear.

Too Much Excitement Causes Baldness

Although modern medicine has identified some of the root causes (pun intended) of baldness, the science behind hair loss was much more nebulous in the mid-20th century. Letter writer “B.C.D.” asked in a 1959 issue of The London Weekly Magazine why more men than women seemed to go bald. The response was a little thin: “The hair of men more commonly falls off than that of women as they become bald from the greater excitement which their pursuits occasion.” Tell that to professional football player Mack Hollins.

Chemistry Is a Fun Way To Pass the Time

In an 1862 issue of The London Journal, readers were presented with a letter from “Harriet,” who was looking to find a way to “pass the dull evenings in the country.” The column dissuaded Harriet from pursuing activities such as books and music, which may have bored her, especially since she seemed cheerless. The suggestion? Science! According to the columnist, chemistry was “very popular with ladies who find time hanging heavily on their hands.” Was this response documenting an actual trend or making an inside joke that citizens of the 21st century don’t get? We may never know.

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Simply Ignore Your Husband

This particular piece of advice might not get the support of modern couples counselors. In a 1943 edition of The Winnipeg Evening Tribune, advice columnist Virginia Vane counseled “Mrs. S,” a happily married woman whose husband had more interest in the morning paper than connecting with her. Mrs. S explained that despite removing the curlers from her hair and “wearing a dress plus a good morning smile,” Mr. S remained unfazed and neglectful. Vane suggested a tit-for-tat response. “It might be wise to try ignoring him,” she wrote. “He’ll always read at breakfast so why don’t you ask him for the other half and read yourself. You’ll no doubt feel better.”

Women Should Never Be Ill

In the October 12, 1895 edition of Isle of Man Times, the “Advice to Wives” column prescribed nine rules for women, reinforcing the attitude that they should be selfless providers of childcare, cleaning, and meals. Like many advice columns from this era, it suggested that women were expected to put their husbands first, even at the risk of health and general happiness. “Don’t mope and cry because you are ill, and don’t get any fun; the man goes out to get all the fun, and your laugh comes in when he gets home again and tells you about it — some of it,” it stated. “As for being ill, women should never be ill.”

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