5 Things You Forgot Happened During the Cold War

Cuban missile crisis

Author Tony Dunnell

May 30, 2024

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Not long after the end of World War II, George Orwell published his essay “You and the Atom Bomb.” In it, he considered the repercussions of the Atomic Age following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the political implications of a world “which was at once unconquerable and in a permanent state of ‘cold war’ with its neighbors.” It wasn’t the first use of the term “cold war,” but it was the first in reference to the precarious state of global affairs in the aftermath of the first nuclear strikes.

The Cold War began in 1947 as an ideological and geopolitical battle for global influence between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies (the Western Bloc and Eastern Bloc). It reached its peak with the Cuban missile crisis in October 1962, when the world faced the very real and terrifying threat of a global thermonuclear war.

The Cold War lasted for almost 45 years, ending with the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. In such a prolonged period of tension and intrigue, some details are easily forgotten. Here are some of the most fascinating but at times overlooked events that took place during the period, from political tantrums about Disneyland to one man who may very well have saved the world.

Nikita Khrushchev Wasn’t Allowed To Visit Disneyland

In September 1959, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev embarked on a state visit of the United States. It didn’t take long before Khrushchev — a famously irritable man — started to complain. Initially, while visiting the Agricultural Experiment Station in Maryland, he allegedly complained that the pigs were too fat and the turkeys too small. A few days later, following a tour of the 20th Century Fox Studios in Hollywood, he had a prickly argument with studio head Spyros P. Skouras regarding the merits of communism.

His anger peaked, however, when he was told he would not be allowed to visit Disneyland as the crowds created too much of a safety hazard. Khrushchev was furious. He made no attempt to hide his displeasure at not meeting Mickey and friends, stating, “I would very much like to go and see Disneyland. But then, we cannot guarantee your security, they say. Then what must I do? Commit suicide? What is it? Is there an epidemic of cholera there or something? Or have gangsters taken hold of the place that can destroy me?” Thoroughly riled, he left Los Angeles the next morning.

The FBI Built a Tunnel Under the Soviet Embassy in Washington

In 1977, the Soviet Union began building a new embassy in Washington, D.C. Fears immediately arose within the United States Intelligence Community that the new embassy could serve as a hub for Soviet spying activities, including eavesdropping on communications from the White House and the U.S. Capitol. In response, the U.S. began digging a tunnel underneath the embassy from a nearby building — in what was known as Operation Monopoly — from which they could monitor Soviet communications. Construction began in 1977, but the secret tunnel didn’t become fully operational until the early ’90s. The whole project was a huge and costly failure, partially due to the clandestine activities of Robert Hanssen, a double agent in the FBI. In 2001, Hanssen was arrested on charges of spying for Russia, at which point Operation Monopoly became public knowledge. It's not entirely clear when the double agent informed Russia of the tunnel’s existence.

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Mathias Rust Flew to Moscow With a Message of Peace

In May 1987, a 19-year-old amateur pilot named Mathias Rust decided to illegally navigate through Soviet airspace — and what was then the largest air defense system in the world. He took off from Helsinki in a single-engine Cessna and flew 550 miles to the center of Moscow, where he promptly landed next to Red Square, a stone’s throw from the Kremlin. It was a stunning achievement, not only because of the real risk of being shot down, but also because Rust had only 50 hours of flying experience.

The West German teenager was driven by a noble cause. He explained how he wanted “to build an imaginary bridge between West and East,” and how he thought “every human on this planet is responsible for some progress and I was looking for an opportunity to take my share in it.” He carried with him a 20-page world peace manifesto that he planned to deliver to Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Rust was arrested immediately after landing, and later sentenced to four years in prison (he served 14 months before being released). How far Rust managed to advance peace is impossible to say, but his daring flight did result in a swathe of high-profile firings and demotions, including the Soviet defense minister and the commander of the country's air defenses.

The Black Sea Bumping Incident

The idea of two Russian frigates deliberately ramming into two American ships sounds like something that could spark a wider conflict. But the Black Sea bumping incident of 1988, in which that very thing occurred, was resolved fairly amicably — and fortunately, considering the Cold War tensions of the time. The incident occurred when the cruiser USS Yorktown and the destroyer USS Caron sailed close to the Crimean coast, partly to challenge the Soviet claim of a 12-mile territorial water limit. (The U.S. argued there was only a 3-mile international limit on the respective territorial waters.) The two vessels were shadowed by two Soviet frigates, one of which, the Bezzavetnyi, had previously warned the Yorktown it would “strike their ship with own” if the Americans entered Soviet territory. It was not an empty threat. The Bezzavetnyi closed to within 50 feet of the Yorktown before slamming up against it. The second Soviet frigate did the same to the Caron. Thankfully for all involved, there was no direct intention to sink either ship, no weapons were fired, and no wider escalation ensued.

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Stanislav Petrov May Have Saved the World

If it weren’t for Stanislav Petrov, the Cold War — and potentially the trajectory of human life on Earth — could have come to a devastating end. Petrov, a lieutenant colonel in the Soviet Air Defense Forces, was on duty on September 26, 1983, when his early-warning satellite system detected what appeared to be five approaching U.S. nuclear-armed intercontinental ballistic missiles. Had he followed Soviet military protocol and reported an incoming American strike, he likely would have set in motion a full nuclear retaliation. Instead, Petrov kept calm and reported a false alarm, reasoning that if the United States really wanted to start a nuclear war, it would launch far more than five missiles. Petrov was correct, and the false alarm was later discovered to have been the result of the Soviet satellite warning system confusing the sun’s reflection off clouds for incoming missiles. By keeping his cool, Petrov potentially prevented a full-scale nuclear war.

Why Do We Say ‘Bless You’ When Someone Sneezes?

Man about to sneeze

Author Kristina Wright

May 22, 2024

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Sternutation, the medical term for sneezing, is a sudden, forceful, involuntary burst of air through the nose and mouth. It can be triggered by irritants in the nose or throat, environmental allergies, or viral upper respiratory infections. Some people even experience photic sneezing, which is sneezing in response to bright light, such as sunlight. The condition is formally known as autosomal dominant compelling helio ophthalmic outburst syndrome. That’s right, ACHOO syndrome.

Regardless of the reason for a sneeze, the polite response is commonly “bless you” or “God bless you.” Unlike with other bodily functions, particularly the closely associated cough, it is considered poor manners to let a sneeze go unanswered. Saying “bless you” is such an expected social custom that not saying it can lead to an awkward and uncomfortable silence, which might explain why a singular sneeze can garner several blessings from people nearby. The question is, why exactly is the phrase “bless you” the standard response to a sneeze?

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A Prayer To Protect the Soul

For most of history, and before the advent of modern medicine in the late 19th century, life could be brutally brief. Globally, the average life expectancy of a newborn in 1900 was just 32 years. By 2021, the number had more than doubled to 71 years. Death took many forms, but infectious diseases, including bubonic plague and influenza, could wipe out entire communities in a matter of months. So any outward sign of illness, such as sneezing, was reason for concern — and in turn, prayer.

Sneeze Responses Around the World

Today, saying “bless you” remains the typical response to a sneeze in the U.S. and the U.K., as well as other English-speaking parts of the world (generally due to colonization). But other countries and cultures have different customary responses. Most typical responses in European countries translate as some version of the word “health,” such as “salud” in Spanish-speaking countries, “salute” in Italy, and “gesundheit” in German-speaking regions. (“Gesundheit” is also popular in the U.S., thanks to the influx of German immigrants in the early 20th century.) In Latin American cultures, the first sneeze will garner the usual response of “salud,” while a second and third sneeze will earn the sneezer wishes of “dinero” (money) and “amor” (love). On the other hand, sneezing usually elicits no response at all in most of East Asia, unless it’s excessive, in which case the typical response is to inquire after someone’s health.

How 5 Classic Magic Tricks Work

Sawing magic trick explained

Author Bennett Kleinman

May 22, 2024

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As far back as the first millennium BCE, ancient Mesopotamians relied on the concept of magic as a guiding principle. They used magic in rituals to ward off evil demons, and as an explanation for perplexing natural phenomena. Over many millennia, as our scientific understanding of the world advanced, “magic” evolved into a form of entertainment, popularized by legendary sleight-of-hand artists and illusionists such as Harry Houdini. Today, your typical magic show leaves the audience feeling awe-inspired and wondering how the tricks are done. Well, wonder no more — this is how five classic magic tricks actually work.

Sawing a Person in Half

It’s impossible to know for certain when a magician first sawed their assistant in half, but one of the earliest recorded instances of the trick was performed by British magician and inventor P.T. Selbit in London in 1920. He debuted the trick to the shock of onlookers, as he seemingly sawed a woman in a box in half and then put her back together, allowing her to leave the box unharmed. In the summer of 1921, Selbit toured the trick throughout the United States, where he encountered pushback from other illusionists claiming to have invented the trick.

While there are several variations of this illusion, depending on the magician’s personal style, one of the most common methods involves two assistants — one that the audience sees and another hidden inside the box. The trick begins by unveiling a long, thin box, with an assistant already hidden inside, tucked away and contorted at the end where the other person’s feet will be. Then the magician opens the box and invites the other assistant to climb inside and lay down. Once they do, they also contort themselves in a way that leaves an empty middle section to cut through. At this point the magician closes the box, and one assistant pops their head out while the hidden assistant pops their feet out.

Credit: Illustration courtesy of Madison Hunt

With the two safely separated, the magician takes a saw and cuts through the middle of the box, seemingly slicing their assistant in half. The magician then separates the halves of the box while the head and feet continue to move for added effect.

To end the trick, the magician wheels the boxes back together, says a few magic words, opens the lid, and allows one assistant to climb out unscathed while the other pulls their feet back in and remains hidden inside the box.

Pulling a Rabbit Out of a Hat

The origins of this iconic trick are also murky. One theory points to a Swiss magician in the late 1800s named Louis Apollinaire Christien Emmanuel Comte, known as the “King’s Conjurer.” He performed magic in the courts of three kings of France: Louis XVIII, Charles X, and Louis-Philippe. The rabbit trick was also popularized by Scottish magician John Henry Anderson, who performed the illusion in theatrical spectacles in the 19th century.

The trick is simple in concept, but requires tremendous skill nonetheless, especially when working with an unpredictable live animal. The simplest way to perform the illusion is with a top hat and table, both of which contain a secret hidden compartment that the magician can reach through. A rabbit is hidden inside a container and placed underneath the table, behind a tablecloth, before the act begins.

To perform the trick, the magician simply places the top hat on the table with the open side facing upward, reaches through both secret compartments, and “magically” pulls out his hand holding a live rabbit.

Performers who are more talented with sleight of hand can also complete this without a gimmicked (altered) top hat or surface. This allows the audience to inspect the hat beforehand to make sure it’s authentic. Magicians performing the trick this way will secretly hide a rabbit on their person, either in their pocket or up their sleeve. Then in the blink of an eye, they tip the hat toward themselves, slide the rabbit in, and pull it out for all to see.

Linking Rings

In this trick, a magician manages to link multiple metal rings together, despite each individual ring being seemingly impenetrable. Some claim that the trick originated in ancient China, though those claims lack hard evidence. Among the earliest confirmed performers of the trick are an 18th-century French magician known as Philippe, as well as a Chinese magician named Ching Ling Foo who toured America during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

This trick is usually done with four rings, three of which are gimmicked. One ring is your standard metal ring, one has a small gap that’s imperceptible to the audience, and the remaining two rings are actually pre-interlocked.

Using a series of quick sleight of hand motions, the magician takes all four rings in their hand and counts them out in front of the audience, making sure to obscure the fact that any are gimmicked or already linked together. Then they take one of the loose rings and tap it against the interlocked rings several times. In a quick motion, they drop one of the interlocked rings so that it hangs, making it appear like they just linked those two rings together.

Next, they take the ring with the hidden gap in it and forcefully link it with the two rings that were already interlocked, thus linking three rings together.

Lastly, they take the normal ring and tap it against the ring with a gap in it before locking those rings together in one quick and fluid motion. At that point, all of the rings are locked together.

Cups and Balls

Many formative musicians considered the cups and balls trick to be one of the most basic yet essential components of any magic routine. In his book Modern Magic, Professor Hoffman (the pseudonym of English author Angelo John Lewis) called the trick “the groundwork of all legerdemain,” a word referring to the act of skillfully using one’s hands.

Essentially, this illusion makes it appear as if balls are “magically” passing through solid cups onto the table. The trick requires three cups and four balls; three balls are visible to the audience and one remains hidden the entire time. It doesn’t matter what kind of cups or balls are used, though sleek metal cups and colorful balls are often preferred by professional magicians for their visual appeal.

The magician begins the trick by placing three balls on the table, equally spaced apart, as well as a stack of all three cups with the open ends facing upward. What the audience doesn’t know is that the secret fourth ball is hidden between the top and middle cups.

The performer then takes the cups and places one behind each ball. They place the first cup behind the leftmost ball, then the middle cup — which contains the hidden ball — behind the middle ball. When doing this, the magician brings the open end toward their torso and keeps it hidden so that the audience doesn’t see that there’s a ball inside. Finally, they place the last cup behind the rightmost ball.

Once the cups are placed, they take one of the balls atop the middle cup (which has a secret ball underneath) and stack the other cups on top. They snap their fingers, lift the cups, and reveal the hidden ball as if it had passed through the cup.

They then repeat this exact process another time to reveal two balls underneath, and a final time to reveal three balls underneath. All the while, a single ball always stays hidden within the stack of cups.

Metamorphosis

Harry Houdini achieved global popularity thanks in no small part to one of the most popular tricks in his routine, Metamorphosis, which he performed with his wife Bess. However, the trick was actually created by English magician John Nevil Maskelyne, who built a special trunk in the mid-1800s to perform it. The trick involves a magician placing their restrained assistant inside the box and then standing on top of the box. Two other assistants then pull up a cloth to obscure the box, and the magician and assistant magically swap places. But how is it done?

First, a solid wooden crate is wheeled out on stage, and the magician bangs on all of the sides to show the audience it’s real and durable. The magician presents their assistant, asks the assistant to climb inside a large bag, and securely ties the bag at the top.

The bagged assistant is then placed inside the crate and the lid is placed on top. The entire box is finally secured with ropes or chains with the assistant inside.

While this happens, the assistant secretly opens a hidden zipper at the bottom end of the bag, allowing them to escape inside the box. They then pull on the rope through a secret hole in the bottom of the box, which makes the visible rope taut and makes it appear as if the box is securely fastened, even though there’s actually quite a bit of slack on the rope.

As the magician climbs atop the crate, a curtain is raised up by other assistants to shield the entire scene. While the curtain is raised, the magician climbs off the box, the lid is slid open, the freed assistant climbs out, the magician climbs in, and the lid is once again placed on top of the box.

With the two having swapped places, the curtain is dropped as the assistant dances about the stage, distracting the audience. While this happens, the magician zips themselves into the bag in the box, which is then opened by the two other assistants. They untie the bag, revealing the magician inside.

Why Is Greenwich, England, the Center of Time?

Greenwich Observatory

Author Mark DeJoy

May 22, 2024

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The worldwide timekeeping convention, known as Universal Time Coordinated (UTC), is often still colloquially referred to by its historical name, Greenwich Mean Time. But how did Greenwich, a borough in southeast London, become the reference point for timekeeping all around the world? To answer that, we have to go back to the 17th century, during Europe’s age of exploration.

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Building Greenwich Observatory

In 1674, King Charles II of England assembled a Royal Commission to study the possibility of creating a more precise measure of longitude in order to improve ship navigation. The greater oceanic distances being traveled by trade ships meant that any inaccuracies were magnified, causing shipwrecks and other maritime disasters; an improved reference for longitude would enable better course-plotting. The commission concluded that accurately determining star positions (as reference points) would be an essential part of the calculation, and recommended establishing an astronomical observatory. In response, Charles II appointed astronomer John Flamsteed as Britain’s first Astronomer Royal in 1675. Meanwhile, Royal Commission architect and astronomer Christopher Wren chose the ruins of Greenwich Castle as the site for the observatory. This was due to its location on high ground in a royal park, as well as the presence of the castle’s foundation, which could be repurposed for the observatory. Construction was completed in about a year, and Flamsteed began his first observations in 1676.

Calculating Longitude

Flamsteed charted stars from Greenwich Observatory until his death in 1719. The catalog of nearly 3,000 stars he observed was published posthumously, first as the three-volume Historia Coelestis Britannica, and then the Atlas Coelestis, the largest and most accurate star atlas at the time. Flamsteed’s work was expanded on by Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne, who published Nautical Almanac and Astronomical Ephemeris in 1766. These works contained the astronomical data needed to calculate longitude, with the help of celestial navigation tools such as the sextant and chronometer.

Using the sextant, which measures the angular distance between objects (such as the horizon and the sun), scientists could accurately observe the highest point of the sun: noon. The chronometer, a mechanical timepiece, was then set to precisely show the time at the Greenwich Observatory right at that moment. The difference between the time at Greenwich on the chronometer and local noon was translated to longitude: An hour of time difference was equal to 15 degrees of longitude (since the Earth rotates 360 degrees in 24 hours, or 15 degrees per hour). The lines of longitude were designated as east or west depending on whether the time at Greenwich was earlier or later than local time, respectively. This was the origin of Greenwich as a reference for timekeeping — at least, for British navigators.

The Many Prime Meridians

Unlike latitude, for which the equator is Earth’s natural midpoint, the pole-to-pole vertical meridians have no such natural reference point. As a result, the location of 0 degrees longitude — known as the prime meridian — is arbitrary, and before a universal standard was established, many countries considered the longitudinal line running through their most significant port city as the prime meridian. France set the longitude at Paris as the prime meridian; in Spain, it was at Cádiz; in Italy, it was at Naples. In the 19th century, there were no fewer than 11 different prime meridians chosen by each of the world’s biggest shipping nations. Since time and longitude are so integral to each other, this also meant that there was no standardized timekeeping between nations.

The lack of an international time standard wasn’t impactful in the slow-moving era of seafaring, but the development of fast-moving transcontinental railroads in the mid-19th century changed that. Transcontinental train travel meant that a train would be crossing several different irregular time standards in relatively short order, especially in Europe, which in turn meant that a crew would have to make specific time changes with each national border crossing. The longer the distance of the trip, the more irregular time changes would need to be made, increasing the chance for scheduling errors and accidents. A solution was critical.

The International Meridian Conference

In 1884, U.S. President Chester A. Arthur convened the International Meridian Conference. Delegates from 21 nations met in Washington, D.C., to determine a globally recognized location for the prime meridian — and with it, a worldwide standard for time zones. Delegates from France argued that the meridian should not be located in either Europe or the U.S., so that it would have “a character of neutrality.” But support for the meridian to be located in Greenwich, England, was overwhelming, because a vast majority of the world’s shipping was already dependent on nautical maps that used Greenwich as 0 degrees longitude. The vote for Greenwich was nearly unanimous; only San Domingo voted against, with France abstaining.

A time zone standard was set with a one-hour time change every 15 degrees of longitude, with Greenwich Mean Time as the reference point. The time zones called for every 15 degrees east of the prime meridian to be an hour earlier than the time at Greenwich, and every 15 degrees west of the prime meridian to be an hour later. However, though the decision was made, it wasn’t actually binding. It took more than 20 years for Greece, Holland, Portugal, Russia, and Turkey to implement the decision on the location of the prime meridian and corresponding global time zone standard. France, proud of its own astronomical heritage, continued to use the Paris Observatory as the prime meridian, and did not adjust its time relative to Greenwich Mean Time until 1911.

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An Updated Prime Meridian

In 1972, Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) replaced Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) as the global standard for timekeeping. The reference point for UTC remains 0 degrees longitude, but thanks to technological advances such as GPS, a more precise location for 0 degrees longitude was determined and agreed upon in 1984. The current prime meridian is known as the International Reference Meridian. It’s located only about 334 feet east of the previous prime meridian — still in Greenwich, England.

The Ongoing Search for Amelia Earhart

Amelia Earhart in airplane cockpit

Author Tony Dunnell

May 22, 2024

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In July 1937, Amelia Earhart and her navigator Fred Noonan took off from Lae Airfield in New Guinea with the intended destination of Howland Island, a small strip of land in the central Pacific Ocean. The 2,556-mile flight, which should have taken about 18 hours, was just one stage in Earhart’s planned circumnavigation of the globe. But Earhart and Noonan never arrived at their destination. The aviators lost contact with the U.S. Coast Guard cutter Itasca, which was anchored off the coast of Howland Island, and they disappeared. This marked the beginning of one of the greatest unsolved mysteries of the 20th century.

The search for Earhart and her missing plane has never ended, and public interest in the fate of the famous aviator remains strong. There are numerous theories — and conspiracy theories — as to what exactly happened to Earhart and Noonan, but a firm answer has yet to be given. Here are some of the key stages in the decades-long search for the pioneering aviator, from the initial sweep of the area to ongoing investigations using the latest technology.

The Initial Search

The last message that the Coast Guard cutter Itasca received from Earhart was on July 2, 1937, saying she was low on gas. Contact was then lost, at which point the Itasca, which lay at anchor off Howland Island, set out to search for Earhart. Not long after, airplanes joined the search from Hawaii, and the Navy battleship Colorado, which carried three observation seaplanes, departed for Howland Island. On July 12, the aircraft carrier Lexington, carrying 63 aircraft, assumed control of the effort. In total, the official government search lasted 16 days at a cost of more than $4 million. The search covered an area of the Pacific roughly the size of Texas, but nothing was found. The general consensus was that Earhart crashed into the ocean and the plane sank, killing both her and Noonan. But the lack of evidence and Earhart’s celebrity status caused the search for a definitive answer to continue.

The Private Search by Earhart’s Husband

When the official search for the aviators ended on July 18, 1937, Earhart’s husband and publicist George P. Putnam began financing additional search efforts. He started by following tips and advice from naval experts. As things became more desperate, he even turned to psychics in an attempt to find his wife. In October, Putnam acknowledged that any chance of finding Earhart and Noonan alive was gone. Later, in January 1939, Earhart was declared legally dead by the Superior Court of Los Angeles.

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The Nikumaroro Bones

While many historians and investigators believe that the simple “crash and sink” theory is the most likely explanation for Earhart’s disappearance, many other theories have been put forward. Some — such as the idea that Earhart and Noonan were captured by the Japanese military or secretly returned to the U.S. to live clandestine lives — are improbable. One theory that does have some legs is the idea that Earhart crash-landed on the uninhabited Gardner Island, now known as Nikumaroro. Three years after Earhart disappeared, a British official discovered 13 bones, along with male and female shoes, buried near the remains of a campfire on the island. At the time, the doctors who examined the remains believed they came from males. The bones were then lost, but the measurements survived. Modern forensic analysis of the dimensions of the bones suggests they could match Earhart’s frame, but there is no DNA evidence to prove the theory.

Credit: Historic Collection/ Alamy Stock Photo

Investigating Nikumaroro

Despite the lack of concrete proof, some experts find the Nikumaroro theory compelling. Since 1988, the International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery (TIGHAR) has launched several missions to Nikumaroro in search of more evidence. As well as identifying the site where the bones were likely found, TIGHAR has found evidence of several campfires, as well as 1930s-era glass bottles — including one that might have contained a type of freckle cream Earhart likely used. TIGHAR continues to investigate Nikumaroro.

Searching the Ocean Floor

Two competing marine technology companies are currently engaged in a race to find Earhart’s plane. Nauticos surveyed an area of the ocean floor roughly the size of Connecticut in three separate expeditions in 2002, 2006, and 2017, but so far has come up empty-handed. Rival company Deep Sea Vision, meanwhile, scanned 5,200 square miles of ocean floor in a search costing $11 million — and it might have found something. In January 2024, the company released images from its cutting-edge Hugin 6000 underwater drone that seem to show the fuselage of an aircraft sitting on the seafloor at about 16,000 feet below the surface and less than 100 miles from Howland Island. But is this Earhart’s iconic Lockheed 10-E Electra? Only time — and a physical investigation of the wreckage — will tell. For now, the mystery continues.

How 5 Historical Figures Stayed in Shape

Teddy Roosevelt on a horse

Author Kristina Wright

May 16, 2024

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In an era dominated by high-tech home gyms and viral workout videos, the pursuit of physical fitness may seem like a distinctly modern preoccupation. But physical activity has long been an integral part of daily life. From ancient philosophers sculpted by rigorous training to intellectuals who advocated for the importance of diet and exercise as part of a holistic approach to well-being, history is filled with people who placed a premium on their physical fitness.

Here are five renowned historical figures who aren’t typically remembered for their athleticism, but whose commitment to exercise profoundly influenced their lives. The paths they took to stay physically fit varied widely, reflecting the diverse approaches people have taken to fitness throughout history.

Plato (427-348 BCE)

Plato, one of the three ancient Greek philosophers (along with Socrates and Aristotle) attributed with building the philosophical foundation of Western culture, was educated in both mental and physical pursuits. Like other Athenian boys, Plato was trained in a variety of physical activities, including gymnastics, wrestling, archery, boxing, and riding. His given name was Aristocles, but it may have been his broad-shouldered physique that earned him the name Plato, from “platos,” the Greek word for “broad.” Before turning to philosophy, Plato put his physicality to use as a skilled wrestler competing in the Isthmian Games, an event similar to the ancient Greek Olympics. “Lack of activity destroys the condition of every human being,” he wrote, “while movement and methodical physical exercise save it and preserve it.”

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)

Leonardo da Vinci not only is recognized as one of the great artists of the Renaissance era, but also represents the archetype of the multitalented “Renaissance man.” Best known for his paintings, including the enigmatic “Mona Lisa” and the iconic “Last Supper,” Leonardo was fascinated with the human form, an interest that can be found throughout his artistic and scientific work. His belief that the human body represented a microcosm of the universe is reflected in his oft-reproduced “Vitruvian Man” sketches, which depict what he believed to be the ideal male body. In his own lifetime, Leonardo was known for his athleticism and strength, and his superior physical fitness can be attributed to a number of athletic pursuits, including fencing, riding, and swimming.

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

As a pioneer for women’s rights in the late 18th century, Mary Wollstonecraft was concerned about women strengthening their bodies as well as their intellect. She saw physical exercise as a means of empowerment and liberation from societal constraints and believed that physical activity not only strengthened the body but also cultivated mental fortitude and independence. “The woman who strengthens her body and exercises her mind will, by managing her family and practicing various virtues, become the friend, and not the humble dependent on her husband,” she wrote in her 1792 treatise A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Wollstonecraft incorporated rigorous physical activity into her own life, which included taking long walks and horseback riding through the countryside.

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Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919)

After a childhood plagued by severe asthma, President Theodore Roosevelt, known for being an outdoorsman and conservationist, pushed himself physically to maintain his health and build his physical strength and stamina. To that end, he pursued a number of challenging activities, including horseback riding, boxing, climbing, polo, swimming, tennis, and martial arts such as jiujitsu and judo. In fact, Roosevelt’s interest in martial arts led him to become the first American to earn a brown belt in judo. During his years in the White House, Roosevelt even had a boxing ring where he could train or spar with professional boxers, such as John L. Sullivan.

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Harry Houdini (1874-1926)

Harry Houdini’s name is synonymous with magic. The enigmatic illusionist’s awe-inspiring ability to escape from seemingly impossible situations captivated audiences, but behind his feats of illusion was a rigorous dedication to staying in peak physical condition. Before he became a world-famous magician, Houdini transformed himself physically through weight lifting, swimming, running, and boxing. As a magician, his training regimen included cold water plunges as well as exercises to enhance his dexterity, flexibility, strength, and breath control, enabling him to contort his body, navigate confined spaces, and hold his breath for more than three minutes.

The Most Popular TV Shows of All Time

Cast of “Cheers”

Author Michael Nordine

May 16, 2024

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The way we watch television is changing, and so is the way we measure viewership: 2023 was the first year in which viewers who no longer pay for traditional TV such as cable service outnumbered those who still do. Cord-cutting is increasingly the norm as people flock to Netflix, Hulu, and other streaming services. The small screen remains a favorite passive pastime all the same, with Nielsen ratings and other metrics showing why the following seven shows have proven so enormously popular with viewers around the world. All of them proved popular throughout their run, with individual episodes (often their finales) setting records for viewership.

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The Fugitive (1963-1967)

Before it was a Harrison Ford movie, The Fugitive was a wildly popular TV series. It took all 120 episodes — 90 broadcast in black and white, 30 in color — to reveal what really happened to the wrongly accused Dr. Richard Kimble (portrayed by David Janssen), and America was more than ready by the end. The series finale, “The Judgment,” set a record when 78 million people watched it, but The Fugitive’s place atop the ratings mountain didn’t last long. When the series ended in 1967, the show that eventually dethroned it was just five years from making its own debut on the small screen.

MA*SH (1972-1983)

M*A*S*H aired 256 episodes throughout its 11 seasons, none of which drew more viewers than its record-shattering finale. When “Goodbye, Farewell and Amen” aired on February 28, 1983, around 105 million viewers were there to see how the beloved series ended — the most of any television broadcast in American history at that point, a record that stood until Super Bowl XLIV in 2010. Nearly 60% of American households helped make it the most-watched episode of any TV show by tuning in, a record unlikely to be broken in the streaming era.

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Roots (1977)

Few series have become cultural phenomena to the same extent as Roots, the miniseries about slavery’s history and legacy based on Alex Haley’s novel Roots: The Saga of an American Family. In addition to critical acclaim and a slew of accolades — the show won a Golden Globe, a Peabody Award, and nine of the 37 Emmys for which it was nominated — Roots broke Nielsen ratings records during the eight consecutive nights on which it aired, and every episode still ranks among the 100 most-watched episodes of all time. Roughly 51% of all American households gathered around their television sets for the finale, and an estimated 140 million viewers watched the show overall. It seems to have been all anyone could talk about in January 1977: “Theaters and restaurants emptied out during the show,” wrote TIME magazine’s Frank Rich two years later. “Hundreds of colleges started Roots courses; the National Archives in Washington found itself flooded by citizens’ requests for information about their ancestors.” In addition to a 1979 sequel, Roots also inspired a 2016 remake.

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Dallas (1978-1991)

Dallas was well known for its cliffhangers throughout its 13-year run, but none of them riled the country into a frenzy the way its third-season finale did. “A House Divided” premiered on March 21, 1980, and after it aired, everyone was asking the same question: “Who shot J.R.?” When that burning question was answered exactly eight months later, 76% of all television viewers in the U.S. were watching — meaning every other show broadcast combined for just a quarter of the night’s total viewership. That amounted to some 90 million people, a record that stood until the M*A*S*H finale. The cliffhanger’s massive success helped popularize the now-common practice of ending a season with unresolved questions, including the Simpsons spoof “Who Shot Mr. Burns?” It wasn’t just this one episode that drew viewers, however — Dallas was a ratings success throughout its run, with seasons 4 through 8 all ranked either first or second according to Nielsen.

Cheers (1982-1993)

It’s the place where everybody knows your name, and just about everyone in the country tuned in when Cheers aired the last of its 275 episodes. “One for the Road” received a Nielsen rating of 45.5, meaning 45.5% of all American televisions were tuned to the episode, with a total viewership of some 93 million. To this day, M*A*S*H is the only series finale to be seen by more people — even massive hits such as Seinfeld (76 million), Friends (52.5 million), and Game of Thrones (13.6 million) didn’t come close.

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The World of the Married (2020)

Traditional television viewership may be declining in the U.S., but it’s never been more popular in South Korea. Viewership records have been set and broken time and again over the last several years, as K-dramas have proved increasingly popular abroad as well. TV ratings are measured in terms of the percentage of households that tune in to a given episode, and the twisty relationship miniseries The World of the Married holds the current record in its home country. A full 28.37% of Korean homes (more than 14 million people) tuned in to the finale, breaking the previous record of 23.77% set by Sky Castle a year earlier.

Squid Game (2021)

South Korea is also responsible for Netflix’s most-watched series of all time: Squid Game, the global sensation that 142 million households pressed play on for a total of 1.65 billion viewing hours within four weeks of its release; the only other Netflix series to crack 1 billion viewing hours in that time frame are Wednesday and Stranger Things 4. Squid Game also won awards across the globe and has been renewed for a second season, which is expected to be wildly popular as well.

A Day in the Life of a Person on the Oregon Trail

Oregon Trail in Wyoming

Author Nicole Villeneuve

May 16, 2024

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In 1843, approximately 1,000 people embarked on the arduous journey west across the young United States in the first major wagon train migration on the Oregon Trail. Spanning more than 2,000 miles from Independence, Missouri, to the promising lands of the Oregon Territory, the trail served as a lifeline for those seeking new beginnings in the American West. Each day, migrants traveled an average of 15 miles, though on a good day, anywhere from 18 to 20 miles could be covered, most of it on foot.

It took roughly four to six months to complete the journey, with harsh obstacles day in and day out, including treacherous terrain, unpredictable weather patterns, illness and injury, and the threat of danger from wildlife or hostile encounters. Of course, the intrepid travelers were prepared: A typical trail outfit consisted of one or two small, sturdy covered wagons to carry belongings and essential supplies, six to 10 oxen, and a few milk cows per family. Most families also had an abundance of basic food staples such as flour, bacon, coffee, tea, sugar, and lard, as well as hunting supplies and farm and carpentry tools such as shovels, rakes, saws, and axes.

But it wasn’t just the supplies that kept the fraught frontier voyages on track. A fixed daily schedule kept wagon trains on a steady pace, and gave travelers the best chance at making it to their destination. Some wagon trains, including the 1843 voyage, could consist of more than 100 wagons; to better control the journey, the train was split into several smaller units consisting of anywhere from four to upwards of 20 wagons and about 30 people. Here’s a look at a typical day in the life of one of these Oregon Trail travelers.

Credit: Photo 12/ Universal Images Group via Getty Images

Morning

People on the frontier started their day early. At around 4 a.m., a bugle call or rifle shot would wake the camp to start another long and dusty day on the trail. Over the next hour, if the livestock had been allowed to graze throughout the night, they were rounded up and corralled in the wagon circle. By about 5 a.m., the women and children in the group would have prepared a simple but hearty breakfast: Most mornings the group had coffee, bacon, corn porridge, or cornmeal pancakes known as johnnycakes cooked over a fire. As the women washed dishes, the men finished striking and packing the campsite. They also tended to the animals, ensuring any sore limbs were wrapped or rough hides were rubbed with salve. The health of the animals was a crucial part of a successful journey.

By around 7 a.m., wagons were packed up and animals hitched, and the caravan set off after a bugle sounded and a “wagons ho” or “wagons roll” call was made. Travelers were incentivized to be on time: Ending up at the back of the caravan meant spending much of the day in the literal dust of the people and animals ahead. Often, the terrain required labor and manpower for safe passage, so men traveled ahead on horseback to clear it as needed. The rest of the group trudged slowly behind on foot as the wagons were not widely used to transport people, but rather supplies. Luzena Stanley Wilson, who traveled to California from Missouri on the Oregon Trail in 1849, said each day had a “plodding, unvarying monotony.”

Afternoon

After a few hours on the trail, the caravan stopped for food, rest, and water at around 12 p.m., known as “nooning.” During this time, young boys in the group took on an important job: wiping dust from oxen snouts to prevent accumulation and breathing problems. Nooning typically lasted about an hour, although depending on the day’s temperature, some groups waited out the heat of the afternoon and instead traveled longer into the cooler evening hours.

Once back on the trail for the afternoon stretch, some caravan members would try to hunt for food, while others gathered dried weeds and buffalo and cow droppings. The “chips,” as they were known, were plentiful and suitable fuel replacements for firewood, which was either too scarce or too heavy to carry along. By about 5 p.m., most caravans stopped to set up camp for the evening, choosing sites with grass for the animals, water for drinking and washing dishes and laundry, and more animal droppings or brush for a campfire. It was also common for campsites to be set up on a hill for better lookout views. Wagons were circled to form a corral for the animals, as well as to offer protection to the campers if needed.

Credit: North Wind Picture Archives / Alamy Stock Photo

Evening

After setting up camp for the night, men typically checked on the animals and wagons while the women and children prepared dinner. Dinners often revolved around what protein was available; sometimes this meant freshly hunted fish or game, but often it was preserved, salted meat or bacon from the caravan’s supplies. Any wild fruits or vegetables gathered from around the campsite could also be used.

After dinner, the women and children did the bulk of the cleaning chores while the men gathered around the campfire to smoke pipes and converse. Before nightfall, campers occasionally enjoyed fiddle music and dancing around the fire.

Night

At around 8 p.m., it was time to turn in for the night. Animals were either left to graze overnight or secured in the corral if campers felt threatened by attacks or theft from Indigenous peoples. (Though contrary to popular myth, more often than not Indigenous locals were tolerant of, and even helpful to, the wagon trains passing through their territories, trading with groups for supplies needed along the way.) Guards were assigned to watch over the camp, and the rest of the caravan settled in to sleep in canvas tents or on the ground under the stars.

At night, the tongue of the lead wagon (the wooden arm that extends from the front of the wagon) was often pointed toward the North Star in order to orient the wagon train in the morning. At midnight, the night guards changed shifts and remained on watch until sounding the 4 a.m. wake-up call for the next leg of the long journey.

We Made Thomas Jefferson’s Ice Cream

Ice cream ingredients

Author Kristina Wright

May 16, 2024

Love it?99

Thomas Jefferson’s complicated legacy encompasses his roles as an American founding father, the principal author of the Declaration of Independence, and the third President of the United States. Jefferson was also an enthusiastic foodie, with a willingness to try new cuisine and an interest in kitchen gadgets. He particularly enjoyed ice cream, a dessert he likely encountered during his time in France from 1784 to 1789. And while Jefferson did not introduce the young United States to ice cream — the frozen treat was served in the American colonies as early as 1744 — he certainly helped popularize the dish, and he is the first known American to write down a recipe for it.

Jefferson’s ice cream recipe is one of only 10 surviving recipes in his handwriting. It’s unlikely that the President created the recipe himself; the original source was likely his French butler, Adrien Petit. Still, Jefferson was fond enough of the creamy dessert to write down the recipe and ship pewter ice molds back from France.

While the founding father’s ice cream recipe is simple to make, the tools used in the early 19th century aren’t in common use today. For instance, the “sabottiere” ice cream maker (also spelled “sabotiere”) that Jefferson references was a lidded metal bucket within a larger wooden bucket. Today’s ice cream makers have similar components, but are easier, faster, and less laborious to use. Likewise, the ice cream molds that Jefferson had shipped from France are mostly obsolete today, replaced by silicone popsicle molds and pint- or quart-sized containers.

The website for Jefferson’s Virginia home, Monticello, includes both Jefferson’s original ice cream recipe and an updated version by Jefferson historian Marie Kimball. To make Jefferson’s ice cream, my son and I stuck as close to the original recipe as possible, improvising when necessary. For instance, to bring the ice cream mixture to boiling, we used a large skillet on a gas stovetop rather than an open fire. And instead of straining it “thro’ a towel,” we used a metal sieve.

Though the process took considerably longer than we expected — and longer than Jefferson himself suggested (see the note at the end of the article) — the end result was rich, creamy, and delicious!

Jefferson's Ice Cream Recipe

2 bottles of good cream.
6 yolks of eggs.
1/2 lb. sugar

mix the yolks & sugar
put the cream on a fire in a casserole, first putting in a stick of Vanilla.
when near boiling take it off & pour it gently into the mixture of eggs & sugar.
stir it well.
put it on the fire again stirring it thoroughly with a spoon to prevent it's sticking to the casserole.
when near boiling take it off and strain it thro' a towel.
put it in the Sabottiere
then set it in ice an hour before it is to be served. put into the ice a handful of salt.
put salt on the coverlid of the Sabotiere & cover the whole with ice.
leave it still half a quarter of an hour.
then turn the Sabottiere in the ice 10 minutes
open it to loosen with a spatula the ice from the inner sides of the Sabotiere.
shut it & replace it in the ice
open it from time to time to detach the ice from the sides
when well taken (prise) stir it well with the Spatula.
put it in moulds, justling it well down on the knee.
then put the mould into the same bucket of ice.
leave it there to the moment of serving it.
to withdraw it, immerse the mould in warm water, turning it well till it will come out & turn it into a plate.

(Modern version here, adapted by historian Marie Kimball)

Gathering the Ingredients

First we gathered our ingredients and supplies. Jefferson’s recipe calls for just five ingredients: sugar, egg yolks, a pinch of salt, cream, and vanilla. But the ice cream-making process requires a number of kitchen supplies, as well as ice and salt, which lowers the freezing/melting point of water. To duplicate Jefferson’s process, I needed to purchase a metal pail, a larger wooden bucket, a large fine sieve, and ice cream “molds,” which were silicone ice cream containers. I also bought a large container of rock salt, as it reacts better with the ice than table salt.

Blending the Eggs and Sugar

In a large bowl, we whisked six egg yolks, then added 1 cup of sugar and a pinch of salt, creating a thick, bright-yellow mixture.

Heating the Cream and Vanilla

Jefferson’s recipe calls for a “stick of Vanilla,” referring to a vanilla bean, from which we get the more familiar vanilla extract. I made a slit in the vanilla bean before heating it with the cream in order to release those tiny seeds that give vanilla ice cream its speckled appearance. (It also smells amazing!)

The recipe also calls for “2 bottles of good cream,” but doesn’t specify the quantity in the bottles. For this step, we relied on Marie Kimball’s updated version of the recipe and used 1 quart of heavy whipping cream (which is the same as heavy cream).

Pouring the Hot Cream and Vanilla Over the Egg and Sugar Mixture

Once the cream and vanilla reached boiling, we took the pan off the stove and slowly poured the cream over the egg and sugar mixture. Then we gently stirred it until the ingredients were well blended before returning the mixture to the pan.

Boiling the Ice Cream Mixture

Kimball’s version of Jefferson’s recipe calls for using a double boiler to heat the ice cream mixture, but we stuck with a single pan, stirring constantly to prevent scorching. After a few minutes, the mixture began to thicken, taking on a custardy texture that smelled like vanilla cake. Once the mixture reached boiling, we took it off the heat.

Straining the Ice Cream Mixture

For the straining step, I intended to use cheesecloth to simulate Jefferson’s towel method, but due to the potential for a literal hot mess, I opted to use Kimball’s recommendation for a fine sieve. Straining the ice cream mixture like this allowed us to catch the small bits of egg and vanilla bean, leaving the ice cream mixture silky smooth.

Putting the Mixture Into the Ice Cream Maker

In place of Jefferson’s “sabottiere,” we poured the strained ice cream mixture into a lidded metal pail, filled the whiskey barrel with an ice and rock salt mixture (per Kimball’s instructions), and then turned the pail at regular intervals, stirring the ice cream mixture occasionally as it slowly began to cool and freeze.

Molding the Ice Cream

After two hours, the ice cream had cooled and thickened to a milkshake consistency. Jefferson’s recipe calls for the ice cream to be packed into ice molds, which were hinged pewter containers in the shape of flowers, fruit, and other decorative objects, but we used a quart-sized silicone ice cream container instead. In retrospect, I wish we’d used popsicle molds, as the smaller containers would have made the ice cream freeze faster.

Once the ice cream was in the container, it took another two hours to thicken to soft-serve consistency. We could have eaten it then (and we did taste test it!), but we wanted the ice cream to hold its shape when scooped. Since most of the ice in the whiskey barrel had melted at this point, we decided to put the container in our modern freezer overnight.

The Final Result

After freezing overnight, the ice cream was hard-packed and scoopable! Creamy, pale-yellow, and speckled with vanilla bean, it was the richest ice cream we’d ever tasted.

Note: One line of Jefferson’s recipe reads, “Then set it in ice an hour before it is to be served.” The actual time to freeze using his method took several hours just to get to soft-serve consistency. This could be due to the size and shape of the containers we used, but it still seems unlikely that it could be done in an hour, even using Jefferson-era ice molds.

5 Inventions You Didn’t Realize Came From Ancient Rome

Codex-style book

Author Tony Dunnell

May 8, 2024

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In 500 BCE, Rome was nothing more than a minor city-state on the Italian Peninsula. But with its eyes set on expansion, Rome began to conquer its neighbors until it controlled all of Italy. It didn’t stop there. It became an empire in 27 BCE, and at its height — around 100 CE — the vast and immensely powerful Roman Empire stretched from Britain to Egypt.

Rome’s influence on the world was both widespread and long-lasting. The Romans were great innovators and inventors, sometimes appropriating and advancing aspects from other cultures, and other times inventing entirely new technologies and systems. These innovations covered a wide range of fields, including state institutions, cultural practices, and engineering techniques.

The Roman Empire eventually fell in 476 CE, but its legacy and influence carried on — all the way to the present day. Some of Rome’s most famous innovations, such as sanitation systems and road networks, are well known and still very much in evidence; in the United Kingdom, for example, many modern roads still follow the routes laid down by the Romans. Other Roman innovations, however, are more obscure. Here are five inventions that continue to shape our modern world, but that many people don’t realize originated in ancient Rome.

The First Bound Books

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In the ancient world, the first written documents were typically recorded on clay or wax tablets, or on sheets or scrolls of papyrus. The Romans also used scrolls, but during the first and second centuries CE, a new form of storing and accessing information emerged: the codex-style book. These notebooks, known as pugillares membranei (roughly translating to “parchment book”), were formed by stacking pages — typically made of vellum or papyrus — that were then joined along one set of edges, much like modern books. They were mainly used for personal writing, and represent the first true form of the bound book. The codices soon became popular throughout Western Europe and the Middle East, eventually superseding scrolls and tablets.

Precision Medical Instruments

The Romans were great pioneers in the field of surgery. We know from archaeological evidence — including well-preserved artifacts found in the buried remains of Pompeii and Herculaneum — that the Romans used precision medical instruments including bone forceps, catheters, obstetrical hooks, scalpels, and surgical scissors. The level of technology found in some of these tools is not so far from their modern counterparts. The Roman version of the vaginal speculum, for example, did not change significantly until the 20th century. The Romans also had a medical military corps with specialized field surgeons who were tasked with keeping the legions fit, healthy, and alive.

Underfloor Heating

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Heated floors might seem like a modern luxury, but the Romans started using them 2,000 years ago. Ancient Romans used an underfloor heating system known as a hypocaust, which drew in hot air from a wood-burning furnace outside the house and channeled it into a chamber below the floor. This not only warmed the floor itself but radiated heat throughout the home. Many examples of hypocausts can still be found in the foundations of villas and townhouses in Roman centers in Germany and England, where cold winters would have made the toasty floors especially inviting.

The Shopping Mall

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Markets have long been prevalent throughout the world as a gathering place for people to sell and buy all sorts of goods and produce. But the first permanent and covered shopping mall was likely built by the Romans: Trajan's Market (Mercatus Traiani), constructed between 100 and 110 CE. Made of red brick and concrete, it had six levels that housed around 150 different shops, as well as government offices and living accommodations. A street on the upper level, meanwhile, was named Via Biberatica after the Latin word for “drink,” suggesting that even the Romans needed to unwind after a hard day’s shopping.

Our Calendar

Most of the world now uses the Gregorian calendar, first introduced in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII. But credit for the modern calendar should really be given to the Romans. The Gregorian calendar is based on the much earlier Julian calendar (which itself owed a lot to the Egyptian solar calendar), introduced by Julius Caesar in 45 BCE. The calendars share many similarities, though one of the main differences is the treatment of those pesky leap years. The Gregorian calendar handles them more precisely, resulting in a discrepancy between the two calendars that is currently 13 days, and will become 14 days in 2100.

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