Who Wrote the Constitution?

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Author Timothy Ott

October 3, 2024

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In the spring and summer of 1787, a contingent of lawyers, businessmen, and other highly regarded state representatives met at the Pennsylvania State House to fine-tune the parameters of the shaky federal government that was established by the Articles of Confederation, the nation’s first stab at a framework for government. Known as the Constitutional Convention, this meeting was perhaps the most momentous occasion in the short history of the United States following the end of the Revolutionary War.

Even in the absence of founding fathers Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, who were serving ambassadorships in Europe, the gathering boasted a formidable collection of the nation’s leaders, including James Madison of Virginia, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, and the elderly but still razor-sharp Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania.

As described in The Summer of 1787: The Men Who Invented the Constitution, many of the 55 delegates carried with them a raft of ideas and some combination of deft oratory skills and a forceful personality to push others to action. As such, there was no shortage of passionate speeches and threats issued over clashing values, although it proved to be more of a challenge to find calmer voices willing to nudge the rest toward compromise, and an additional challenge to pull the oft-debated and revised proposals into a document with language that would stand the test of time.

James Madison’s “Virginia Plan”

Four days after the Constitutional Convention officially commenced on May 25, 1787, Virginia Governor Edmund Randolph presented an outline of 15 draft resolutions under what became known as the “Virginia Plan.” Largely authored by Madison, the plan proposed a three-branch federal government and two-house legislature, a system that heavily concentrated power in the latter and gave the national government the ability to veto state laws.

The ambitious Virginia Plan touched off a series of debates within the convention, starting with how it represented a clean break from — as opposed to a means for improving — the system laid out by the Articles of Confederation. Even more contentious were the debates over how the states would be represented in Congress, and who had the power to choose the chief executive. Although an alliance of the smaller U.S. states later proposed a system that hewed closer to the Articles of Confederation, known as the “New Jersey Plan,” the delegates ultimately rejected this version when the two plans were put to a vote in mid-July.

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The First Draft

Heading into an 11-day recess in late July, the delegates assigned the job of transcribing the first draft of the Constitution to a group known as the Committee of Detail, consisting of Nathaniel Gorham of Massachusetts, Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, Edmund Randolph of Virginia, and Chairman John Rutledge of South Carolina. The committee largely worked off the Virginia Plan, while also considering a separate draft previously completed by Charles Pinckney of South Carolina, as well as portions of the Articles of Confederation and various state constitutions.

With Randolph providing an initial outline before Wilson delivered a polished revision, the five-person committee tackled the difficult task of balancing state and federal powers, even as they took the bold step of introducing provisions that hadn't been formally discussed at the convention. Randolph's outline, for example, enumerated 18 specific powers accorded to Congress, while Wilson's version ensured that state constitutions could not supersede federal law.

While the other delegates accepted most of the 23 articles delivered by the Committee of Detail, a few ideas spurred additional rounds of heated rhetoric. Among them was a provision that attempted to encode indefinite protection of the slave trade; while this never came to fruition, it exposed the divide between the convention’s plantation owners and abolitionists, and rekindled the argument over how the Southern population of enslaved people affected representation in Congress.

The Man Who Wrote Most of the Final Language

After each of the 23 articles had finally been reviewed, a new five-person Committee of Style was tasked with incorporating the various resolutions that came out of the conventions into something close to a final product.

Along with Chairman William Samuel Johnson of Connecticut and Rufus King of Massachusetts, the committee was marked by the notable presences of Madison, whose extensive work on creating and promoting this document earned him the moniker "Father of the Constitution," and New York's Alexander Hamilton, who missed much of the convention but was nonetheless admired for his formidable intellect.

Yet it was Gouverneur Morris of Pennsylvania who wound up with the job of putting pen to paper, a weighty responsibility awarded on the basis of his writing talents, his ability to work quickly, and a willingness to accept the decisions of his colleagues even if they differed from his own impassioned views.

Proving up to the task on all fronts, Morris streamlined the Committee of Detail's 23 articles into a concise list of seven over the course of about four days. He also wrote the celebrated preamble to the Constitution ("We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union..."), while largely avoiding the temptation of adding new material at this late stage of the game, save for one clause that prevented states from interfering with private contracts.

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The First Signatures

Presented to the rest of the delegates on September 12, 1787, Morris' draft underwent further discussion but minimal changes over the next few days. The final fix came courtesy of the Constitutional Convention’s normally quiet president, George Washington, who sought one final tweak to the never-ending issue of congressional representation. Once the final draft was done, the official job of physically writing out the Constitution was undertaken by Jacob Shallus, assistant clerk of the Pennsylvania Assembly, who carefully engrossed nearly 4,500 words across four sheets of parchment.

On September 17, 38 delegates scribbled their signatures on the freshly printed Constitution (with George Read signing for fellow Delawarian John Dickinson, who could not attend the signing ceremony due to illness). Although the launch of the new-and-improved federal government was not yet complete — nine states still needed to ratify the Constitution, with the Madison-authored Bill of Rights soon to follow — the tangible document stood as proof of the cooler heads that somehow shepherded four months of wildly divergent and oft-incongruent ideas into the law of the land.

Why Were Old Bridges Covered?

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Author Nicole Villeneuve

October 3, 2024

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Covered bridges are an idyllic symbol of rural America. These charming, often hand-built structures have been romanticized in popular culture for years, from Thomas Kinkade’s painting “The Old Covered Bridge” to the novel (and film adaptation) The Bridges of Madison County. Despite their dispensability in the age of concrete and steel, these old wooden bridges continue to be beloved landmarks, their distinct roofs making them easily recognizable even today. But what exactly led to their proliferation in decades past?

A covered bridge is exactly what its name suggests: a bridge with a roof and enclosed sides, typically constructed from wood. The reason for the covering is quite simple. While there are some theories — most likely with some truth to them — that the roofs were added to keep animals calm above rushing water, or to provide shelter for travelers, the real purpose was much more practical. Wooden bridges, which were common in the U.S. and Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries due to the abundance of timber, deteriorated quickly when exposed to the elements. Rain, snow, and sunlight caused the wood to rot or warp, compromising the materials’ integrity and reducing the lifespan of the bridge. Covering the structure protected the wooden framework and deck. By keeping the timber dry, the bridge’s life could be extended by decades. Uncovered wooden bridges might last just 10 to 20 years, whereas some of America’s original covered bridges, such as the Hyde Hall Bridge in New York’s Glimmerglass State Park, remain intact almost 200 years after being built.

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Simply having a roof doesn’t necessarily make a structure a true covered bridge, though. Underneath every authentic covered bridge is its truss system, a network of beams, often in the shape of triangles, that distributes the weight of the bridge and the load it carries on its deck. The trusses, though rugged in appearance, require precision, and building one often took a whole village — quite literally. Dozens, if not hundreds, of skilled workers from the community were involved: sawyers to prepare the rough-cut logs, timber framers to properly place the beams, and stonemasons to build the abutments, to name a few.

While the bridge coverings were primarily a form of protection, they also became symbols of, and important to, the communities that built them. They served as gathering places and even inspired local lore — such as the tradition of couples sharing a covert kiss under the roof, inspiring the name “kissing bridges.”

Covered bridges began appearing in the United States in the early 1800s; one of the earliest and most famous examples was Philadelphia's Permanent Bridge, built by architect Timothy Palmer over the Schuylkill River in 1805. By the mid-19th century, covered bridges were a common sight in the American countryside; estimates suggest that as many as 10,000 were built by the peak of their popularity in the 1870s. Though they’ve become emblematic of bucolic Americana, they weren’t unique to the U.S. In ancient China, for instance, covered bridges — known as corridor bridges — served as multifunctional structures, housing community events and shops, or providing a place to rest. Similarly, covered bridges in Switzerland, such as the artwork-adorned Kapellbrucke (or “Chapel Bridge”) in Lucerne, have been around for centuries and remain admired for their intricate designs and historical significance.

While covered bridges were once a common sight across the American landscape, fewer than 1,000 remain today. Despite the protection and reinforcement a covering offered, it wasn’t always enough in the face of floods, fires, or neglect over time. Remaining structures in states such as Pennsylvania, Vermont, and Indiana continue to be preserved and restored, connecting travelers not only to the other side of the river, but to the past.

Everyday Etiquette That Came Out of World War II

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Author Nicole Villeneuve

October 3, 2024

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World War II didn’t just reshape global politics and drive social change; it also left a lasting imprint on the everyday habits we now take for granted. As the war effort led to new challenges in the U.S., such as resource scarcity and shifting societal rules, the need for innovation and efficiency ushered in not only new military strategies, but new ways of life on the home front. These small but significant changes may have been born out of necessity, but they shaped American etiquette and culture permanently. From grooming to fashion to nutrition, here are some now-common habits that came out of World War II.

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Wearing T-Shirts

T-shirts are among the indispensable components of modern style, but they were once considered mere undergarments. The classic white garment first became a standard part of the U.S. Army’s uniform during World War I. The undershirt was given a new name — the T-shirt — in the 1920s thanks to writer F. Scott Fitzgerald, and in World War II, it was once again made part of the standard-issue military uniform. By that time, T-shirts were already becoming more than just underwear; they were marketed to civilians and worn by younger crowds in high schools and universities. But it wasn’t until after the war ended that they became ubiquitous. Soldiers returning home from combat had grown accustomed to the T-shirt’s comfort and began incorporating the item into their everyday wear. Images of soldiers wearing T-shirts while serving their country also boosted the garment’s popularity, and in the 1950s, movie stars such as Marlon Brando and James Dean made the T-shirt an undeniable staple of casual fashion.

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Toothbrushing

Oral hygiene existed in various forms for centuries before World War II, but most Americans started brushing their teeth daily only after soldiers brought the habit home with them after the war. During World War I, poor dental care contributed to health problems on the battlefield: Soldiers suffered from "trench mouth," a painful infection that caused sore and bleeding gums, and, in more serious cases, fever and fatigue. As a result, the military emphasized stricter hygiene routines in World War II, including mandatory toothbrushing at least once a day for soldiers. Troops were supplied with hygiene kits containing a toothbrush and toothpaste (or tooth powder, which turned into a rather abrasive paste when mixed with water). By the time the war was over, the habit was ingrained with returning soldiers, and in 1950, when softer nylon toothbrush bristles were introduced, toothbrushing became a daily routine in many American households.

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A Clean Shave

In the years following World War II, American lives were shaped by a sense of relief and optimism. The country’s postwar economy surged back to life, and consumerism was not only expected, but encouraged. These changes coincided with new habits among returning U.S. soldiers. Along with having clean teeth, they were also accustomed to being clean shaven — and having easy access to the products needed to stay that way. Razor company Gillette had been providing shaving kits to soldiers since World War I, and in World War II, it also made covert shaving kits for prisoners of war, which contained miniature tools such as compasses, maps, and money. Following the war, the company was eager to capitalize on this brand awareness while meeting new consumer demand as soldiers transitioned back into civilian life. The clean-shaven look remained popular until the beatnik style emerged in the 1960s. Women had also been encouraged to shave their legs since the 1930s, and due to the World War II nylon shortage, smooth legs — with painted-on hosiery — became the norm by the 1950s.

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Blue Jeans

Blue jeans were already starting to seep into U.S. culture by the time soldiers reported for duty during the Second World War. Denim dungarees and coats had been worn by the U.S. Navy since the early 1900s, and by the 1930s, jeans were the de facto pants of Western movie stars — a symbol of the romanticized American cowboy. During World War II, however, blue jeans went global. U.S. soldiers stationed overseas were often from working-class Western families, and they wore their denim — some of which was made specifically for soldiers — with pride. By the early 1950s, the style was undeniable: The newly minted “teenager” demographic had adopted blue jeans as counterculture cool. Other developments on the homefront also helped pave the way for the American denim boom. The rise of women in the workforce during the war, symbolized by Rosie the Riveter, positioned the workwear as practical, durable clothing that was both essential for industrial roles, and a staple of postwar women’s fashion.

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Red Lipstick

Throughout World War II, American women were encouraged to maintain a polished appearance, and lipstick in particular became a powerful symbol of patriotism. As slogans such as “keep your beauty on duty” reminded women that their appearance could boost morale at home and abroad, red lipstick emerged as a defiant beauty staple. When women in the Allied countries learned that Adolf Hitler had a dislike for the look, they embraced it. British women even went so far as to stain their lips with beet juice if they couldn’t find or afford the real thing. Red lipstick became a powerful symbol: The U.S. Army commissioned its own shade, "Victory Red," for women in uniform, and in 1942, cosmetic powerhouse Elizabeth Arden’s "Montezuma Red" became standard issue. It was available as a lipstick, nail polish, and blush that perfectly matched the red piping and chevrons on the women’s Marine uniforms.

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Orange Juice at the Breakfast Table

It wasn’t just hygiene habits and fashion trends that came out of World War II. America’s wartime focus on health and nutrition led to food and beverage staples that resonated for decades — the orange juice craze among them. In order to ensure troops were getting enough scurvy-preventing vitamin C, the U.S. government worked on a viable alternative to cumbersome fresh fruit. Together, the Florida Citrus Commission and U.S. Department of Agriculture attempted to improve upon canned orange juice, which already existed but was not yet popular. Their collaboration led to a breakthrough: evaporating the liquid from fresh juice to produce a juice concentrate. The innovation arrived too late to be utilized by troops during the war, but in 1946, Minute Maid orange juice made its way to American breakfast tables. It wasn’t an immediate hit, however — it took a 1949 ad campaign by Bing Crosby to kick-start the enduring breakfast staple.

A Vitamin a Day

In 1941, during the nascent days of the nation’s focus on nutrition, President Franklin D. Roosevelt convened the National Nutrition Conference for Defense to address concerns about national vitamin inadequacies. As the U.S. entered World War II, the focus on nutrition became urgent; vitamins were seen as crucial not just for preventing deficiency but also for maintaining peak health and morale. By the mid-1940s, the country’s so-called “vitamin famine” was being tackled with new multivitamins such as Vimms, Stams, and the still-popular One A Day. After the war, the demand for vitamins remained strong, and the habit of taking multivitamins, rooted in wartime health strategies and marketing, persists in American culture today.

Why Do Older Movies Look Faster?

Charlie Chaplin, 1914 — Credit: Hulton Archive/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

Author Timothy Ott

September 25, 2024

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When we think about old, silent films, we’re likely to picture the choppy, fast-paced movements of Charlie Chaplin or Buster Keaton, or perhaps the newsreel footage of Babe Ruth hitting a home run and seemingly zipping around the bases at 40 miles per hour. As talented as these individuals were, they weren’t capable of moving at speeds far beyond the range of normal people. So why do they appear that way on film?

Film Only Provides the Illusion of Movement

To answer this question, we need to go back to some of the basics of filmmaking. Throughout the history of cinema, movie cameras have never been able to faithfully capture real-life movement. Rather, they record a series of still images in rapid succession, and replay them at speeds fast enough to trick the human mind into perceiving movement.

The number of individual images (or frames) displayed in one second of film is known as the frame rate, measured in frames per second (fps). Thomas Edison, who patented (but didn’t invent) the movie camera, noted that film needed to be shown at a speed of at least 46 fps to provide the illusion of movement. But in the early days of cinema, this proved too pricey to be practical, and some filmmakers found that the visual illusion could be sustained — and expensive celluloid film stock conserved — with frame rates closer to 16 fps, or even as low as 12 fps. While this speed was considered fast enough for a movie camera of that era, it is noticeably slower than the 24 fps rate that later became commonplace for both filming and projecting. And when old footage filmed at 16 fps or lower is accelerated for replaying at modern speeds, it will make the objects on screen move noticeably faster.

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Some Films Were Sped-Up on Purpose

In the 1920s, the major Hollywood studios largely used the Bell and Howell 2709 movie camera. This model featured a hand crank that churned through half a foot of film with each revolution. As such, turning the handle twice per second equated to a shooting speed of 16 fps, which became the general standard for the era.

That said, many silent film directors deliberately ordered sequences shot at slower or faster speeds — “undercranked” or “overcranked” — for effect. A scene filmed at a slower speed (i.e. 16 fps) and then projected at a faster speed (i.e. 24 fps) will appear sped up, while the effect of slow motion comes when something is filmed at an even faster speed and then slowed to a standard speed for projection.

Studios often provided theaters with specific instructions for projection speeds that were higher than the filmed speed to make the motion look faster than normal, generally for comedic purposes or action sequences. And yet many of these theaters projected the films at even higher speeds in order to cram more showings and boost the number of paying customers in a single day. The end result of a film shot at, say, somewhere between 14 and 18 fps and projected at 22 fps or faster is the sped-up motion typical of movies from this era.

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Sound Changed the Standard for Speed

Though Edison and other innovators had previously attempted to match sound to moving pictures with limited success, the successful rollout of the Vitaphone with the Warner Bros. features Don Juan (1926) and The Jazz Singer (1927) showed that “talkies” were here to stay.

The Vitaphone solved the problem of sound and picture synchronization with a mechanical turntable that simultaneously powered a phonograph record alongside a film projector. A 16-inch record played at a speed of 33.3 rotations per minute (rpm) delivered 11 minutes of sound, matching the 11 minutes of visuals produced by 1,000 feet of film played at 24 fps. As sound ushered in a new era of cinema, Hollywood studios sought to standardize film speeds to preserve the uniform quality of their expensive productions, and 24 fps became the standard frame rate across the industry (notably slower than Edison’s original recommendation of 46 fps).

The reason for this exact number varies: Some sources note the depreciation of audio fidelity at lower speeds, or the fact that 24 is divisible by several numbers, enabling cinematographers to easily mark off smaller increments of film. Yet it’s likely that 24 fps was accepted throughout the industry largely because of Vitaphone's initial success at that number.

The Filming Speed Today

Naturally, the equipment that once was considered cutting edge in Hollywood has long since been replaced by new and better creations. The all-important Vitaphone quickly became obsolete with the emergence of sound-on-film technology in the 1930s, and the Bell and Howell 2709 camera fell out of production by 1958. Even the longtime staple of celluloid film was largely pushed aside by major studios with the rise of digital movies in the 2000s.

Yet the old-fashioned 24 fps film rate remains standard across the industry, despite the ability of modern cameras to shoot at far greater speeds. One major reason for this is simply that audiences have become accustomed to the distinct look of movies shot at that speed (as evidenced by the critical uproar over the visuals from the 48 fps version of 2011’s The Hobbit).

This means we’ll likely continue watching movies filmed at this standard for the foreseeable future. And in the meantime, we can also enjoy the old clips of Charlie, Buster, and other luminaries of the silent era, the jerky movements and clumsy intertitles serving as a reminder of how far this beloved form of storytelling has come over the past century.

What Americans Ate for Dinner in the 1800s

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Author Mark DeJoy

September 25, 2024

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Tastes in 19th-century America were generations removed from our tastes today. Vegetables weren’t generally as appreciated as they are nowadays, and vitamins were yet to be discovered as an important nutritional factor. Food was also very regional, a trend we see in modern cuisine, too, but the localization at the time was due to scarce means of transporting ingredients. Some foods from the Victorian era endure today, such as oatmeal, roast beef, tomato soup, and mayonnaise. But others might seem as strange and outmoded as the horn on a victrola. Here’s a look at some bygone dishes from the Victorian table.

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Squab

Nowadays, if squab is known at all, it’s known as the meat of a meticulously raised young rock pigeon, served as a rarified poultry component of an exclusive dinner. But in the 1800s, squab was a staple protein. That’s because the squab of previous eras was a different type of pigeon, one that was among the most abundant birds in the world: the passenger pigeon. Due to its tendency to fly in massive, densely packed flocks, the passenger pigeon was extremely easy to hunt, and represented freely available meat. Prized for its tenderness and often described in terms that suggest a ducklike quality (one historical source recounts it as “darker than the dark meat of a chicken” and “entirely without strong taste”), squab was prepared just about every which way: served in stews, roasted with salt pork, fried, baked in a pie, broiled, and served on toast.

In the wake of post-Civil War advancements in communication, such as the telegraph, and transportation, such as the railroad, a large-scale pigeon industry emerged, which saw professional hunters and trappers tracking and harvesting the flocks en masse. Sadly, the resulting combination of overhunting and habitat disruption led to a catastrophic decline in the passenger pigeon population. By 1900, the birds were too scarce to hunt; by 1914 the passenger pigeon was extinct.

Chicken Fricassee

Fricassee, a French loanword, is both the name of a dish and the cooking process used to create it. To fricassee a chicken is to first sauté it in fat, then stew it in a stock that is eventually thickened with flour. The result is a stewlike dish of tender meat in a light roux gravy. As is typical of stew and similar dishes, many variations existed: Sometimes tomatoes were added; sometimes dumplings; sometimes it was served with biscuits. The flexibility of the dish was part of what made it popular; fricassee was known to be a favorite dish of Abraham Lincoln.

Succotash

A vegetable stew that has its origins in Indigenous cookery, succotash is an Anglicization of the Narragansett word msickquatash. The classic base of succotash is the trio of produce known in agricultural circles as the "Three Sisters": corn, beans, and squash. The dish had two main variants based on the season. During spring and summer, succotash was made with fresh corn and lima or string beans, while in winter it was made with dried corn and dried white beans. Both versions were cooked with butter or pork fat, and a little milk.

In the 20th century, succotash became a common commercial canned food product, and the dish became associated with bland and overcooked cafeteria mush — a far cry from its origins as a harvest meal. As a result, succotash fell out of favor as the century progressed, but 21st-century cooks have been rediscovering the appeal of the original made-from-scratch dish.

Oysters

Today, raw oysters on the half shell are most often associated with upscale dining, but in the 19th century, oysters were a staple food, prepared in a multitude of ways. They were grilled, fried, roasted, stewed, baked in pies, even pickled. They were eaten in sandwiches, used as turkey stuffing, made into soups and sauces, or composed into dishes such as Hangtown Fry, an oyster and egg dish that, according to a 1933 cookbook, looked “like an egg pancake with oysters mixed in.” Oysters became so popular that by the late 1800s, households tended to keep specific plates for them — oyster plates had between four and six indentations in them, in order to cradle an oyster shell in place.

Because of their incredible abundance, the popularity of oysters transcended class — they were eaten by rich and poor folks alike. But oyster harvesting was not done sustainably. In New York City, which was considered the oyster capital of the world during the 19th century, pollution, landfill, and overharvesting compromised the oyster beds of New York Harbor to an extent that the oysters became inedible. The oyster beds were closed permanently by 1927.

Turtle

In the 1800s, turtle meat was a protein most often associated with upper-class dining. Preparation for turtle and terrapin was labor intensive — Maude C. Cook’s 1887 cookbook Three Meals a Day contains directions for the laborious process, which required removing the shell. In part because of the difficult preparation, turtle was rarely eaten at home; the meat was most commonly served in a banquet setting. Another reason was the sheer size of the turtles, which averaged between 50 and 300 pounds. The typical preparation of turtle was in turtle soup, considered a delicacy throughout the 1800s.

Over time, overharvesting led to the endangerment and near-extinction of the terrapin, and Prohibition made it difficult to get sherry, which was considered an essential seasoning ingredient for turtle soup. While the popularity of turtle waned during the 1920s, it recovered after World War II, only to mostly disappear by the dawn of the 21st century.

Baked Beans and Brown Bread

Brown bread was a steamed puddinglike loaf made from rye, wheat, and molasses. Mainly popular in New England, the bread was an affordable food that took advantage of lower prices for rye and wheat in that region. Brown bread was prepared by steaming it in a can, which resulted in a cylindrical shape, and it was served sliced into rounds. Baked beans were the traditional accompaniment, and had been since colonial times. Though it’s rarely seen in other parts of the U.S., the dish is still a popular food in New England today.

What Is the World’s Oldest Name?

Ancient city of Uruk — Credit: robertharding/ Alamy Stock Photo

Author Mark DeJoy

September 25, 2024

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Based on the way trends shift over time, you can often guess how old someone is by their name. Elmer, Willard, Fred, and Harold are currently the male names with the oldest median ages, so men with those names today will generally be older; for women, the names with the oldest median ages are Gertrude, Mildred, and Opal. These, of course, are all still in use today. But what is the oldest known name of all time, period?

The answer to that question can be found on a collection of tablets from the ancient Mesopotamian city of Uruk (in modern-day Iraq), which date back to approximately 3100 to 3000 BCE, more than 5,000 years ago. The text inscribed on the tablets describes transactions from the ancient Sumerian Temple of Inanna, as well as the name of the person who recorded the transactions: Kushim.

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The tablets were written in cuneiform, a Sumerian script that evolved from pictographs. While pictographs were rudimentary line drawings consisting of shapes imprinted into clay using a fine-pointed tool, cuneiform was a more complex script that emerged around 3200 BCE when a wedge-shaped reed stylus replaced the pointed tool. Instead of pictures, a variety of angular shapes could be made with the stylus, representing words, sounds, and syllables.

Cuneiform tablets were often used for bureaucratic records, and historians believe that Kushim was likely an accountant or government official. On the Uruk tablet, now known as MS 1717, an unusual combination of two symbols appear: the cuneiform symbols for the sounds “Ku” and “Sim.” Both sounds are known to scholars, but there is no known cuneiform word that corresponds to the combination of the two sounds. That fact, combined with the positioning of the symbols at the end of a sentence, suggests that the cuneiform “Ku-Sim” is the name of the individual responsible for the transaction recorded.

The Schøyen Collection in Oslo, where some of the Uruk tablets are housed, displays a translation of one of the transactions: “Beer production: 134,813 litres of barley to be delivered over 3 years (37 months) to the government official Kushim responsible for the brewery at the Inanna Temple in Uruk.” The MS 1717 tablet is also notable for another reason: Its inscriptions are the first known depiction of an industrial process.

Can we be certain that Kushim was truly someone’s name, though? While there is room for argument that Kushim may simply be a job title, there is additional evidence on the tablet in support of it being a name. The word “Sanga” appears in the text immediately preceding Kushim, which is a word known to historians as a Mesopotamian job title. This makes it unlikely that Kushim is a title, as it would be redundant in context.

It’s worth noting that historians do not consider Kushim to be the first-ever given name, but rather a contender for the oldest given name that exists on record — tracking the earliest human history doesn’t tend to yield simple and definitive answers. To that end, there are a few other possible oldest names, a few of which appear on a tablet discovered in the ancient Sumerian city of Shuruppak (in modern-day Iraq). The Shuruppak tablet reads, “Two slaves held by Gal-sal” and then goes on to name them: “En-pap X and Sukkalgir.” Historians believe this artifact is likely one or two generations more recent than MS 1717, but in the context of thousands of years of antiquity, a timeframe of a few decades is difficult to prove with certainty. Another possible oldest name is the ancient Egyptian ruler Iry-Hor, who is thought to have lived contemporaneously to Kushim, Gal-sal, En-pap X, and Sukkalgir.

As for today, is there anywhere in the world where the name Kushim is still used? According to the demographics site Forebears, approximately 76 people currently have that name. It’s most common in Russia, but also appears in Uzbekistan. It’s the 2,168,711th most popular name in the world.

Surprising Grooming Etiquette From the Past

Shaving and wig preparation, 1771 — Credit: Hulton Archive via Getty Images

Author Bennett Kleinman

September 19, 2024

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Long before the advent of mechanical showers, nail clippers, and electric razors, people’s personal grooming habits were far different than they are today. Many modern grooming tools weren’t invented until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which left anyone who lived before that with limited options, creating some hygiene habits that seem quite unusual today. Here’s a look at some of the strangest personal grooming etiquette in the history of the Western world.

Credit: Rogers Fund, 1917/ The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Romans Tweezed Their Bodies

Hair removal has been practiced for ages, but some ancient Romans took the practice to a whole new level. In Roman society, body hair was viewed as an unfavorable trait for both genders. Romans believed maintaining a clean-shaven look helped differentiate them from the uncouth “barbarians” elsewhere in the region. Men also removed their body hair for athletic purposes; athletes were admired for their hairless aesthetic at the time, as smooth skin meant less for an opponent to potentially grab onto. Romans used pumice stone to remove stubble and an early razor called a novacila to achieve a closer shave. But tweezers were among the preferred methods when it came to getting rid body hair — from head to toe.

Many people opted to painstakingly remove each strand of hair using a pair of tweezers, which produced a smoother effect than the rudimentary razors and scrubs that were available at the time. In 2023, archaeologists uncovered more than 50 sets of these grooming devices from the ancient Roman city of Wroxeter in modern-day England. Tweezers were a popular tool of choice because they were cheap to make and didn’t pose any risk of serious harm. That said, plucking out body hair with tweezers was a painful process: The Roman politician Seneca once wrote a letter complaining about the loud shrieks coming from the Roman baths where people had their hair pulled out. Rather than tweeze the hair themselves, many Romans often relied on enslaved people to remove their hair for them, especially around the armpit area, where hair was considered particularly undesirable.

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One Etiquette Book Suggested Using Bird Dung To Cure Baldness

In a passage in his 17th-century book The Path-Way to Health, British author Peter Levens suggested that chicken droppings could be used to cure baldness. He wrote, “Take the ashes of Culver-dung in Lye, and wash the head therewith” — the term “Culver-dung” referring in this case to bird poop, likely that of a pigeon or dove. This was one of several questionable theories to promote hair growth that Levens proposed in his book, and by far the most unpleasant.

Levens also suggested several solutions for removing hair, and yes, they also required animal droppings. He wrote, “Take hard Cats dung, dry it and beat it to powder, and temper it with strong Vinegar, then wash the place with the same, where you would have no haire to grow.” Today, the idea of mixing cat poop and vinegar together sounds like one of the most unpleasant odors imaginable, and indeed it’s unclear how many contemporary readers, if any, actually tested Levens’ solution.

Credit: Michele and Tom Grimm/ Alamy Stock Photo

People Used “Ear Pickers” To Clean Ears, Fingers, and Teeth

Q-tips weren’t invented until 1923, but earwax was always a major grooming issue. One of the best solutions for tackling clogged ears was the use of “ear pickers” — an ornate, handheld tool that was common throughout Europe and the American colonies during the 16th and 17th centuries. The device was often made of a precious material such as gold, silver, or ivory, and was worn around the neck on a chain as a status symbol.

One end of a traditional ear picker was formed into a scoop shape that could be used to pry wax out of the ear canal. Doctors often advised people to remove earwax, which at the time was thought to cause deafness. The other end of a standard ear picker was pointed, and often used to dislodge food from teeth or clean dirt out from under the fingernails.

Wigs Were Styled Using Animal Fat

Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, wigs were considered fashionable for both men and women. Many men used the hairpieces to hide premature balding, which was increasingly common in Western society at the time due to untreated cases of syphilis. These wigs were usually made from real human hair and then slathered with a pomade made of animal fat to style them and maintain their shape, and they were worn so often that they quickly became pretty disgusting.

Not only did the rancid animal fat cause wigs to stink to high heaven, but they also became breeding grounds for fleas and lice. The wigs were delicate and quite difficult to wash, so many wig-wearers simply persevered through the unpleasantness caused by odors or creatures. But the hazards didn’t end there; the animal fat also made wigs highly combustible, putting the wearer at serious risk if they stood near a candle or other open flame.

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Milk Baths Were Popular With Aristocrats

Milk baths were once a popular practice among elite members of society, to keep their skin looking soft and wrinkle-free. One popular legend claims that Cleopatra frequently bathed in sour donkey milk as part of her daily beauty ritual, though the veracity of this claim has long been debated. According to historian Adrian Goldsworthy, that story is likely a myth, and it was actually Poppaea, the wife of Roman Emperor Nero, who helped popularize the practice of bathing in milk. Centuries later, Queen Catherine Parr of England (the sixth and last wife of Henry VIII) was also known to take milk baths, which she enjoyed with “perfumes and scented oils,” according to historian Susan E. James. It’s also said that Queen Elizabeth I bathed in milk to maintain a pale complexion.

Indeed, paleness was such a popular beauty standard in the Western world that women even applied arsenic powder to whiten their faces and hair. This trend was made common in Europe during the 19th century, as doctors promoted “complexion wafers” made of arsenic — a toxic element believed to be harmless at the time — to achieve a fair skin tone, which was associated with the upper-class privilege of not working outdoors.

The Bizarre Election of George Washington

George Washington, 1789 — Credit: Three Lions/ Hulton Archive via Getty Images

Author Timothy Ott

September 19, 2024

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These days, we take for granted the organized chaos that accompanies the U.S. presidential election every four years, from the lengthy nominating cycles and raucous party conventions to the relentless media coverage that analyzes the candidates’ every word and gesture. By that standard, the 1789 election that made George Washington the first American president was far quieter, but in some ways it was even stranger.

America’s first election looked very different from today’s presidential races: There were no official political parties and campaigning, and nearly everyone wanted the same candidate to win. The election of 1789 served as a blueprint for how presidents would be picked in the United States — though many rules have changed since then. Here’s a look at this bizarre and historic experiment in democracy.

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We Can Thank This Election for the Electoral College

The origins of America’s first presidential election were the passionate discussions held by the delegates at the 1787 Constitutional Convention. Until that point in the nation’s brief history, the Articles of Confederation had proven inadequate as the basis for a unified central government, which lacked the power to levy taxes, regulate commerce, or enact foreign policies. As such, the convention delegates haggled over the details of a new system. “Federalists,” including James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, were eager to imbue the central government with a raft of powers, while “anti-Federalists,” such George Mason, were leery of diminishing the rights of the individual states.

Although the participants came to agree on the creation of an office for the head of government, one major point of contention was just how this chief executive would be selected. Given the prevailing belief in the separation of powers, it was determined that a parliamentary system in which the legislature voted for an executive leader (like in Great Britain) was a bad idea. The convention’s delegates also reasoned that it wasn’t feasible to leave the vote directly up to the people, who harbored diverse interests and were likely to put forth an array of provincial candidates in lieu of a unifying national figure.

The delegates ultimately settled on a system of “electors,” now known as the Electoral College, to be appointed by each state according to a process of its choosing. The number of electors was equal to the state’s number of congressional representatives (ranging from three in Delaware to 12 in Virginia), for a total of 69 electors in all. As eventually stated in Article II, Section 1 of the Constitution, each of these electors was to vote for two people — at least one of them from another state — after which the leading vote-getter would become president and the runner-up would be vice president. If two candidates tied, or if anyone failed to accumulate a majority, the winner would be determined by the House of Representatives.

Only 10 States Participated in the Election

Adhering to the language of the Constitution, each state determined its own method for naming electors, which had to be chosen by January 7, 1789. In Connecticut, Georgia, and South Carolina, electors were appointed by the state legislatures, while in New Jersey, the governor and a privy council did the deed. In New Hampshire, residents voted on a list of candidates, and the legislature selected five of the top 10 finalists; in Massachusetts, the legislature chose one of the two candidates who received the most votes by residents in each of eight districts and appointed two additional electors at large.

Elsewhere, the populace largely determined the winning electors, with various regional wrinkles. Pennsylvania and Maryland both had statewide ballots, although the latter instituted a rule in which the majority of electors had to come from the western shore and the rest from the eastern shore. Delaware’s electors were determined by the winners of three districts, while Virginia split the votes among 12 electoral districts that were distinct from its 10 congressional districts.

Noticeably absent from this list are North Carolina and Rhode Island, the two commonwealths that had not yet ratified the Constitution and as such were not formally part of the United States. New York was a member of the union by then, but its legislature failed to agree on a process for determining electors by the January 7 deadline, rendering the state ineligible to participate in the election.

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George Washington Was Basically the Only Serious Candidate

So who were the candidates to lead the nation from this brand-new office? The overwhelming favorite was George Washington, the Revolutionary War hero who had also presided over the 1787 Constitutional Convention. The only question was whether he would accept the job. The former general, who was in his mid-50s at the time, had expressed a preference for “living and dying a private citizen on my own farm,” although he seemed resigned to the likelihood of a return to public service.

John Adams, the former Massachusetts delegate and U.S. minister to Great Britain, emerged as a likely choice for vice president, in part because his Northern roots would provide a balance to the Southern sensibilities of the Virginia-born Washington. Meanwhile, anti-Federalists who had lingering misgivings about the Constitution coalesced around New York Governor George Clinton, who was a prominent advocate for states’ rights and a limited central government.

While support for Washington was strong, some of the Founding Fathers were concerned about a process that failed to distinguish between votes cast for president or vice president. Worried that anti-Federalist electors would siphon votes away from Washington and inadvertently tip the election to Adams, a Federalist faction led by Alexander Hamilton privately pressured select electors to name someone besides Adams as the second name on their ballots.

Washington Swept Into Office With a Unanimous Vote

Ultimately, the concerns about an unfavorable outcome ended up being overblown. When the votes were counted on April 6, 1789, Washington had appeared on all 69 electoral ballots to become unanimously selected as the first U.S. president. Adams collected 34 votes, causing him to finish second and become the first vice president. However, he was upset by what he considered a relatively meager total, and reportedly held a grudge against Hamilton after learning of the back-channel plot to limit his support. The remaining votes were spread among 11 names, with John Jay (9), Robert H. Harrison (6), John Rutledge (6), and John Hancock (4) all surpassing the three votes cast for Clinton.

Shortly after receiving news that a life of leisure would have to wait, Washington undertook the weeklong journey from Virginia to New York to take the oath of office at Manhattan’s Federal Hall on April 30, 1789. The inauguration being held in New York City was just one of many elements of the U.S. presidential election that later changed, along with the formation of political parties, the 1804 ratification of the 12th Amendment that separated voting for the president and vice president, and the emergence of a national identity spawned by the success of this once-novel system of government.

The U.S. Presidents’ Favorite Foods

Making cheese grits — Credit: Bartosz Luczak/ Shutterstock

Author Tony Dunnell

September 19, 2024

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From hearty steaks to sugary snacks, the culinary preferences of U.S. presidents have always fascinated the American public. That’s perhaps no surprise, as the quirks of presidential palates offer a unique glimpse into the personalities behind the Oval Office. And when it comes to comfort foods and guilty pleasures, be it FDR’s love of grilled cheese sandwiches or Ronald Reagan’s obsession with jelly beans, you might find that presidents are more like us than you’d think. Here are the favorite foods of 14 U.S. presidents.

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George Washington: Hoecakes With Honey

George and Martha Washington often hosted guests at their home at Mount Vernon, with large spreads laid out for hungry visitors. Washington’s favorite dish was surprisingly simple and reflected his farming roots: He loved hoecakes, a type of cornmeal pancake. According to Martha Washington’s granddaughter Nelly Custis, he preferred them “swimming in butter and honey,” and would regularly eat them for breakfast.

Thomas Jefferson: Macaroni

Thomas Jefferson's fondness for macaroni began during his time in France, and upon his return to America he imported a pasta machine to make his own. A recipe for macaroni written in Jefferson’s own hand still exists, and his instructions for creating something similar to modern mac and cheese is credited with popularizing the dish in the United States.

Abraham Lincoln: Apples

Abe Lincoln was known for his frugal eating habits, often to the dismay and concern of his wife, Mary Todd Lincoln. Some sources note his fondness for two particular dishes: chicken fricassee with biscuits, and oyster stew. But Lincoln’s favorite food might well have been apples, which, according to his friends, he ate with gusto on a daily basis.

William Howard Taft: Steak Breakfasts

William Howard Taft, who weighed 354 pounds when he took his oath of office, remains the heaviest person to ever occupy the White House. His weight owes much to his breakfast habits. According to his head housekeeper Elizabeth Jaffray, he began each day by eating a “thick, juicy 12-ounce steak” served alongside two oranges, buttered toast, and a “vast quantity of coffee, with cream and sugar.”

Franklin D. Roosevelt: Grilled Cheese

FDR’s White House was known for serving terrible food, due in part to First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt’s well-intentioned desire to show solidarity with regular Americans during the Great Depression. It was slim pickings for FDR, but he did very much enjoy classic grilled cheese sandwiches. He also liked hot dogs, which were infamously served to the visiting king and queen of England.

John F. Kennedy: New England Fish Chowder

JFK was particularly fond of soup, and New England fish chowder was a favorite. In 1961, a young girl named Lynn Jennings wrote to President Kennedy asking what he liked to eat. He promptly replied and passed along the recipe for his preferred fish chowder. Kennedy was also known to be a fan of waffles for breakfast; in fact, his family waffle recipe is preserved in the National Archives.

Lyndon B. Johnson: Texas-Style Barbecue

LBJ’s love of barbecue was legendary. In the 1950s and ’60s, he and Lady Bird Johnson hosted large Texas-style barbecues at their ranch along the Pedernales River in the Texas Hill Country. The president served brisket, ribs, and his favorite Texas-style chili to hundreds of guests from around the world.

Richard Nixon: Cottage Cheese and Ketchup

Richard Nixon was a cottage cheese devotee, initially as part of his diet regimen. It appears he grew to love the stuff and ate it on a daily basis, often alongside fresh fruit, wheat germ, and coffee. In one of the stranger presidential food combos, he also enjoyed his cottage cheese topped with ketchup and black pepper.

Gerald Ford: Pot Roast and Red Cabbage

Gerald Ford preferred hearty, homestyle cooking. His favorite meal was a pot roast with red cabbage, followed by butter pecan ice cream for dessert.

Jimmy Carter: Cheese Grits

Jimmy Carter's Southern roots showed in his love of grits — especially cheese grits. In 1976, his daughter Amy told The New York Times, “Daddy makes grits for breakfast, then breaks a couple of eggs into it and adds some cheese, and it's yummy.” The family dog was even named Grits.

Ronald Reagan: Jelly Beans

Ronald Reagan began eating jelly beans as part of his successful attempt to give up pipe smoking, but then his candy consumption became something of an obsession. While he was president, Reagan placed a standing order of 720 bags of jelly beans per month — that’s 306,070 total jelly beans — to be distributed among the White House, Capitol Hill, and other federal buildings.

George H.W. Bush: Pork Rinds

During his 1988 presidential campaign, George H.W. Bush expressed his love for pork rinds, which he at times enjoyed with a splash of Tabasco sauce. Sales of the fried pig skins soared, despite some sections of the media claiming his comment was nothing more than Bush attempting to appear down-to-earth, and that he actually preferred popcorn and martinis.

Bill Clinton: Jalapeño Cheeseburgers

Before his heart issues and subsequent switch to veganism, Bill Clinton was famous for his love of fast food; he even took reporters on jogs to McDonald’s. He particularly enjoyed jalapeño cheeseburgers with lettuce, tomato, mayonnaise, pickles, and onions.

George W. Bush: Cheeseburger Pizza

In 2007, White House chef Cristeta Comerford told reporters about George W. Bush’s fondness for a peculiar pizza topping. “For dinner,” she explained, “the president loves what we call homemade ‘cheeseburger pizzas’ because every ingredient of a cheeseburger is on top of a margherita pizza.” Soon after, the topping could be found in pizzerias across the nation.

Did Pirates Really Have Peg Legs?

Pirate with a peg leg — Credit: UniversalImagesGroup via Getty Images

Author Tony Dunnell

September 19, 2024

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The image of a pirate with a peg leg, an eye patch, and a parrot on the shoulder is deeply ingrained in popular culture, from classic literature to Hollywood movies. The peg-legged pirate, in particular, has become an enduring trope — it’s easy to picture such a character standing on the deck of a pirate ship, growling, “Arr, me hearties” and “shiver me timbers” while a motley crew runs up the Jolly Roger.

But how much of this image is based on historical reality? Did many pirates actually have peg legs, or is this merely a romanticized myth perpetuated by literature and film? Here, we delve into the history of piracy — and maritime medicine — to separate fact from fiction.

Injuries in the Golden Age of Piracy

Between 1650 and 1720 — a period often considered the golden age of piracy — more than 5,000 pirates sailed the seas and caused all kinds of havoc. It was an incredibly dangerous profession, not just due to battles and skirmishes, but also because of accidents, diseases, and the primitive medical care available at the time.

The nature of sea engagements often involved firing cannon broadsides at medium or close range between vessels, while muskets, pistols, swords, and grenades were used in close combat. All of this made the loss of limbs an occupational hazard, and injuries that resulted in amputations were not uncommon among sailors and pirates.

Surviving these injuries, however, was a long shot at best. On a pirate ship, the job of surgeon often fell to the ship’s carpenter or even the cook — the two most qualified people simply because they were accustomed to cutting things. Lacking adequate skills and equipment, and relying on rum as an anesthetic, these surgeons carried out amputations with a low chance of success. Even if the patient survived the procedure, they would often die from infection. The point at which a prosthetic was an option was a long way away for an amputee pirate. Even if they could afford a peg leg, most amputees would simply use crutches. Either way, their days of pirating would normally be over — making actual peg-legged pirates very rare indeed.

Credit: Bequest of Grace M. Pugh, 1985/ The Metropolitan Museum of Art

History’s Real Peg-Legged Pirates

While peg legs weren’t nearly as ubiquitous as popular culture suggests, they weren't entirely fictional either. We do know of a couple of documented cases involving high-profile pirates with prosthetic limbs.

The most famous is arguably François Le Clerc, a 16th-century French privateer. When not being paid by various European rulers to act on their behalf, Le Clerc sailed independently as the leader of a pirate fleet. He was one of the first notable pirates of the Caribbean and was known for his peg leg. His nicknames included “Jambe de Bois” and “Pata de Palo” (in French and Spanish, respectively), both of which translate as “wooden leg” or “peg leg.”

Another example is Cornelis Jol (1597-1641), a Dutch corsair, admiral, and privateer — in other words, pirate-adjacent — who was nicknamed “Houtebeen” (Dutch for “peg leg”) due to his wooden leg. It’s worth noting, however, that both Le Clerc and Jol were sailing the high seas before the golden age of piracy, which is the era typically associated with peg legs, parrots, and eye patches.

Credit: Heritage Image Partnership Ltd/ Alamy Stock Photo

The Rise of the Peg-Legged Pirate in Popular Culture

The image of the peg-legged pirate is so pervasive in large part due to literature, in particular Robert Louis Stevenson’s 1883 adventure novel Treasure Island. The character of Long John Silver, with his amputated leg and pet parrot, became — and remains — the archetypal image of the pirate in the public imagination.

Stevenson’s original Long John Silver, however, was missing his leg entirely and moved around on crutches. It was only in later adaptations, including on stage and screen, that Silver was often portrayed with a wooden leg. This image began to permeate the public consciousness — so much so that many people erroneously believe that the original Silver had a peg leg, too. The iconic pirate image was most recently reinforced by the Pirates of the Caribbean movies (the character Hector Barbossa has a prosthetic leg) and the popular television series Black Sails, which features the character of John Silver with a peg leg. It’s safe to say, then, me hearties, that the image of the peg-legged pirate is very much alive, despite actual historical examples being rare indeed.

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