When Did People Start Using Last Names?

“Surname” line on a printed form

Author Kristina Wright

August 15, 2024

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There were around 6.3 million different surnames, also known as family names or last names, reported in the 2010 U.S. census, and there are millions more worldwide. Some, of course, are more popular than others: More than 106 million people have the last name Wang (a Mandarin term for “prince” or “king”), making it the most common surname in the world. And if you live in the U.S., there’s a pretty good chance you know someone with the last name Smith, Johnson, Williams, Brown, or Jones — the five most common surnames in the country.

As populations grew, surnames began as a way to differentiate between people with the same first name, for both legal and social purposes. Having more than one name helped identify which John owned a specific parcel of land or which Robert had a son who was getting married. Over time, they became important to an individual’s identity and heritage, particularly as people began to emigrate from their homelands. Today, etymologists and genealogists continue to research the origins of last names as a way of gaining insight into how people and societies have developed personal and collective identities. Here’s what we know about how this naming convention came to be.

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Surnames First Emerged in China

The concept of surnames dates back thousands of years, with the earliest examples found in China as early as the third millennium BCE. (Some of those names, such as Zhong, also written as Chung, are still used today.) Genealogists believe that matrilineal surnames were used in China until the Shang dynasty (1600-1046 BCE), when there was a shift to using patrilineal names.

Other ancient societies, including Greece and Rome, had their own systems of assigning names based on family and clan associations. The ancient Romans assigned three-part personal names (tria nomina) that included a praenomen (given name), nomen (clan name), and cognomen (family name), indicating the importance of lineage and family connections even in early Western cultures.

The Norman Conquest Helped Popularize Surnames

While the use of last names was established in some ancient societies, surnames weren’t widely used in Europe before the Middle Ages. The earliest recorded example of a European surname is the Irish Ó Cléirigh (O’Clery or O’Cleary in English), meaning “descendant of the clerk,” recorded in County Galway, Ireland, in 916 CE. Before the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, Anglo-Saxon surnames were inconsistently used and were specific to an individual. It wasn’t until the Norman barons introduced their system of fixed and hereditary surnames that the practice began to take hold and spread throughout the European continent.

The use of last names was inconsistent in the beginning, as the names were often changed or dropped altogether over time. Surnames could also have a wide variety of spelling variations due to the fact that many people couldn’t read or write, so names were spelled phonetically, or even abbreviated, for official records. Despite the lack of a formal naming system, the use of last names became a practical necessity for distinguishing among people as cities developed and populations expanded.

Early on, surnames were primarily used by the European aristocracy and land-owning class. By the 15th century, however, hereditary surnames were widely used in England and parts of Scotland. Women traditionally took their husband’s last name and, under King Henry VII, children’s names were also recorded under their father’s last name. The introduction of parish records in the 16th century and subsequent civil registration systems helped standardize the use and spellings of surnames. For instance, there were more than 80 different spelling variations of William Shakespeare’s surname, including Shackspeare, Shagspere, and Shaxberd. Accurate and consistent documentation helped in property transactions, tax collection, and other legal matters.

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Surnames Also Developed From Occupation and Geography

As the practice became popular in medieval Europe, choosing a surname took different forms. The earliest last names were typically related to a person’s occupation, physical characteristics, geographic location, or paternal lineage. Occupational surnames, such as Baker or Carpenter, reflected a person’s profession and helped indicate their trade skills. A surname could also be derived from a nickname that referenced a personal trait or reflected how someone was seen in their community, such as Armstrong, indicating physical strength, Brown, referring to someone with brown hair or skin, or Young, used to distinguish between a father and son.

Geographic names, known as locative or toponymic surnames, were connected to the location where a person was born or lived. These place names were often chosen in relation to a nearby city, such as Warwick or York, or based on local landmarks. For instance, the name Churchill could mean a person lived near a church on a hill, while Southgate could refer to someone who lived near the southern gate of a town.

Patronymic family names were derived from the name of a father or male ancestor and often used a prefix or suffix to indicate a person’s lineage. For example, the suffix “-son” in the English name Johnson and the prefix “Mac-” in the Scottish name MacGregor mean “the son of John” and “the son of Gregor,” respectively. Similarly, the prefix “O’-” in the Irish name O’Grady means “descendant of Grady.”

Smith, which is the most common surname not only in the U.S. but in the entire English-speaking world, derived from an Old English word meaning “to smite or hit,” and was used by blacksmiths. There are just a few hundred professional blacksmiths in the United States today, but more than 2.3 million people still carry the last name Smith.

7 Things You Forgot Happened During World War II

Army tank at Castle Itter

Author Nicole Villeneuve

August 15, 2024

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The biggest, most pivotal events of World War II are cemented in the collective memory — the D-Day invasion of Normandy, the Battle of Stalingrad, the devastating deployment of atomic bombs. But beyond these headline-grabbers, there are many forgotten or overlooked events that shaped the course of the war, from a quirky yet panic-inducing mishap to a near-disaster that was narrowly avoided. Here are seven lesser-known moments from the Second World War.

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Germany Was Ambushed by “Night Witches”

Under the cover of night and in airplanes made of plywood and canvas, an all-female Soviet bomber regiment known as the “Night Witches” became an instrumental part of the European theater of World War II. The group, officially named the 588th Night Bomber Regiment, was the brainchild of esteemed Soviet aviator Marina Raskova, sometimes called the “Soviet Amelia Earhart.” Raskova convinced Soviet leaders to allow women in combat roles as the Red Army struggled against the German invasion, and between 1942 and the end of the war in 1945, the Night Witches flew more than 30,000 bombing missions against German forces.

The planes, each crewed by a pilot and a navigator, flew in groups. The leading aircraft acted as decoys, while the last plane would cut its engine and glide in quiet darkness to the target area before firing. This move gave the group its nickname, the “Nachthexen” — German for “Night Witches” — since the approaching planes sounded like whooshing brooms. Their courageous operations and precise skills earned many of the aviators the title Hero of the Soviet Union, the nation’s highest distinction.

Japan Sent Balloon Bombs to the U.S.

World War II was a time of unconventional weaponry experiments. There were attempts at bat bombs and rat bombs, and Japan even deployed explosives to the U.S. via balloons. The operation, known as Fu-Go, started in November 1944, when hydrogen-filled balloons equipped with incendiary bombs were launched from the north end of Japan's Honshu Island. The weapons were meant to travel across the Pacific and, upon landing in the U.S., start fires and cause panic, diverting U.S. military resources. Although more than 9,000 balloons were launched during the campaign, military damage was ultimately minimal, with fewer than 300 incidents reported. Sadly, there were a few casualties — on May 5, 1945, six people were killed while on a picnic in Gearhart Mountain, Oregon, when they unknowingly pulled one of the balloons out of the woods and triggered the explosive.

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An Unlikely Alliance

It was one of the most unlikely battles of World War II: On May 5, 1945, U.S. and German soldiers joined forces to fight the Waffen-SS, the combat branch of the Nazi secret police. The setting was Castle Itter, an Austrian fortress where Nazis were keeping high-profile French prisoners. As the prisoners sent out messages for help, a group of American soldiers approached. There, they discovered that German Major Josef Gangl, who had turned against the Nazis, was already there with a handful of soldiers, ready to protect the prisoners from the SS. The unlikely allies banded together and managed to hold off the SS until reinforcements arrived. Gangl was killed in the confrontation, but the Battle of Castle Itter, which happened just three days before the official end of the war in Europe, is believed to be the only time that Americans and Germans fought as allies during the war.

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A Bear Served in Poland’s Military

It’s well known that animals played crucial roles in World War II, but one large creature in particular stands out as an unusual combat companion. In 1942, a Syrian brown bear cub was adopted by Polish soldiers stationed in Iran. The furry friend quickly became a beloved mascot; the soldiers named him Wojtek, meaning "happy warrior" in Polish. As Wojtek grew, he was officially enlisted as a private to ensure he could travel with his unit, and over time, his role evolved from being a morale booster to being an active participant in military operations. His most famous contribution came during 1944’s Battle of Monte Cassino in Italy, where Wojtek helped carry heavy artillery shells and crates of ammunition. The regiment changed its insignia to an image of a bear carrying an artillery shell in his honor, and Wojtek was eventually made a corporal. The heroic animal lived out his veteran days at the Edinburgh Zoo, where fans and former comrades visited him until his passing in 1963.

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The U.S. Navy Almost Accidentally Torpedoed President Franklin D. Roosevelt

In November 1943, the U.S. Navy was responsible for a near-disastrous incident involving President Franklin D. Roosevelt. While en route to the Tehran Conference to meet with Allied leaders, President Roosevelt traveled aboard the USS Iowa battleship. To ensure the president’s safety, his ship was accompanied by a convoy that included the destroyer USS William D. Porter. During a routine drill, the destroyer inadvertently fired a live torpedo directly at Roosevelt’s ship. As the torpedo sped toward the battleship, the destroyer crew frantically signaled the Iowa to move out of the way; Roosevelt, meanwhile, requested to have his wheelchair moved in the midst of the commotion for a better view of the action. The Iowa successfully executed a hard turn, narrowly avoiding the torpedo, which eventually exploded harmlessly in the water.

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A Young Woman’s Engineering Feat Helped the Allies Win the War

The name Beatrice “Tilly” Shilling may not be known to many, but she played a pivotal role in helping the Allied forces in World War II. Shilling was a talented engineer who, after being one of only two women to earn an electrical engineering degree from the Victoria University of Manchester, joined Britain’s Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE). It was there that Shilling devised a simple yet pivotal solution for an issue with British fighter planes. During sharp maneuvers, fighter jets such as the Hurricane and Spitfire would often stall out, so Shilling came up with a way to restrict fuel from flooding the engine. Later known as "Miss Shilling's orifice," the invention went on to give Allied pilots a crucial edge in dogfights against the fearsome German Luftwaffe.

A Crossword Puzzle Panic

In the lead-up to the planned June 1944 Allied invasion of Normandy, the British intelligence agency MI5 went into a panic when code words related to the operation began showing up in a British newspaper. Starting in early May 1944, words such as “Utah,” “Omaha,” “Mulberry,” and even “Overlord” — the invasion’s code name — appeared as answers in The Daily Telegraph’s crossword puzzle. MI5 tracked down the puzzle’s writer, Leonard Dawe, a headmaster at the Strand boys’ grammar school, but determined the words were a coincidence. Later, it was suggested that it likely wasn’t exactly a coincidence, but rather due to the fact that Dawe and his students were exposed to U.S. troops passing through Surrey, and inadvertently absorbed their code words.

How 8 U.S. Presidents Stayed in Shape

Dwight D. Eisenhower playing golf

Author Bennett Kleinman

August 6, 2024

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The role of president of the United States is intensely demanding, and requires both physical strength and mental acuity to perform the job properly. This is why it’s so important for presidents to care for themselves and embrace a healthy lifestyle, which often involves a regular fitness regimen. All 45 people who have served as POTUS have gone about this in their own unique way. Some turned to organized sport, others oversaw the installation of new fitness equipment in the White House, and one president even had a workout routine named in his honor. Here’s how eight former U.S. presidents stayed in shape.

Thomas Jefferson Rode Horses Down Pennsylvania Avenue

Thomas Jefferson is famed for being one of the most learned and bookish presidents to ever hold office. But according to some of his correspondences, he valued physical fitness even more than knowledge. In a letter he wrote on June 11, 1790 — 11 years prior to his presidency — Jefferson said that he preferred to use “all the afternoon for exercise and recreation… because health is worth more than learning.” One of his favorite ways to stay in shape was by riding horses. According to historian William Seale, Jefferson was one of a few early presidents who would hop on a horse and “jump and gallop down Pennsylvania Avenue.” Seale also noted, “In those days, there was a rule that a president didn’t have to stop at an intersection,” so Jefferson could ride unimpeded to his heart’s content. Even after leaving office, he continued to ride horses for three to four hours daily, according to a letter he wrote to John Adams in 1812.

Teddy Roosevelt Held White House Boxing Matches

Theodore Roosevelt was an avid sportsman who wrestled and practiced jiujitsu in order to stay fit. He also enjoyed sparring with boxing partners in the White House, and one of his favorite people to spar with was Dan Tyler Moore, the cousin of first lady Edith Roosevelt. During one sparring session in 1905, Moore hit Roosevelt so hard in the eye that it partially blinded the president. However, the permanent injury wasn’t enough to deter Roosevelt, who continued to box with amateur and professional boxers. Another way that Roosevelt liked to stay fit was playing tennis. He even oversaw installation of the first White House tennis courts, just behind the West Wing. (They were relocated in 1911 by Roosevelt’s successor, William Howard Taft.)

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Calvin Coolidge Rode a Mechanical Horse

The president known as “Silent Cal” for his reserved demeanor preferred artificial horses to the real thing, and even had a mechanical horse installed inside his private White House dressing room. Calvin Coolidge rode the “horse” three times a day in order to lose weight and improve his liver function. This routine was kept a secret until 1925, when the press caught word of the unusual regimen and leaked it to the public. This led to an onslaught of jokes and teasing from Coolidge’s fellow politicians. Kentucky Representative Fred Vinson even got up in front of Congress and read a mocking poem about the president’s “hobbyhorse.” To avoid any further ridicule, Coolidge switched from the mechanical horse to an electric vibration machine that purportedly reduced his waistline.

Herbert Hoover Helped Create a Game Known as Hoover-Ball

Herbert Hoover may be the only president with a popular ball game named in his honor. The game is called Hoover-ball, and it was inspired by a game called bull-in-the-ring that was popular on naval ships. The rules of Hoover-ball were developed by White House physician Joel T. Boone in 1928 in order to keep Hoover physically fit. The game was nameless until the moniker “Hoover-ball” was coined in a 1931 article by a New York Times Magazine reporter.

The game is played with two teams of anywhere from two to four players, and it’s scored quite similarly to tennis. The goal is to hurl a 6-pound medicine ball over an 8-foot-high net so it touches the ground on the other side before an opponent can catch it. Hoover and other VIPs played the game on the South Lawn of the White House at 7 a.m. sharp every morning except Sundays. In Hoover’s memoirs, he claimed the game required “less skill than tennis,” though it was also described by a friend as “more strenuous than either boxing, wrestling, or football.”

FDR Had a White House Swimming Pool Installed

Franklin D. Roosevelt was diagnosed with polio in 1921, and found that swimming was one of the best ways to get exercise with his affliction. He often swam at therapy pools at his New York home, though he had to give that up upon moving into the White House in March 1933. This is when the president’s supporters came to his aid, as the New York Daily News led a campaign to raise funds to build a White House pool. That effort was successful, and a new indoor swimming pool was installed that June. FDR’s new pool was state of the art, as it featured underwater lighting and sterilizers. Swimming quickly became a part of the president’s daily fitness routine.

The pool was also often used by Presidents Harry Truman and John F. Kennedy, but Richard Nixon drained it in 1970 to make space for a new press briefing room. President Gerald Ford, however, oversaw construction of a new outdoor pool in 1975 that opened on White House grounds. Ford took his inaugural dip on July 1, and a few days later welcomed the press to watch him do laps, telling reporters that he hoped “to do about 40 laps a day.”

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Harry Truman Enjoyed Vigorous 5 a.m. Walks and Morning Bourbon

A morning stroll is often meant to be relaxing and provide a low-impact workout. But President Harry Truman’s daily walks were anything but relaxing, as he often conducted them at a rather brisk pace. The 33rd president began each morning at 5 a.m. by putting on a suit and tie and going out for a 2-mile walk. And instead of a slow saunter, Truman preferred walking at a rate of about 120 steps per minute — the pace of a traditional quick march in the U.S. Army. Upon the walk’s conclusion, Truman returned to the White House and downed a shot of bourbon at the advice of his doctor. The president diligently adhered to this fitness routine whether in D.C. or back in his hometown of Independence, Missouri, where he began his morning just a little later around 7:30 a.m. That routine also differed in that it would start with a shot of bourbon and a glass of orange juice, followed by a brisk walk around the neighborhood.

Dwight D. Eisenhower Popularized Golf as a Presidential Sport

According to historians, William McKinley was the first president to embrace golf as a hobby, though he largely kept it a secret. It wasn’t until 1953 that golf became deeply intertwined with the presidency, and it’s thanks to Dwight D. Eisenhower. While serving as commander in chief, Eisenhower played more than 800 rounds of golf over the course of his eight years in office, logging an average score in the mid-80s. He was so fond of golf that he used the South Lawn of the White House as a practice range, and even had a 3,000-square-foot putting green built outside the Oval Office in 1954. Eisenhower often played with fellow politicians and dignitaries, as well as golf legends such as Arnold Palmer.

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Bill Clinton’s Jogging Annoyed the Secret Service

Bill Clinton’s affinity for long jogs was described as a “nightmare” by the Secret Service agents who were tasked with protecting him. Clinton enjoyed jogging three days a week, often at breakneck speed for no more than 37 minutes at a time. Secret Service agents sometimes struggled to maintain his pace, and their job was made all the more difficult by the many people that Clinton would encounter and talk to along the way. But the president loved jogging as a way to stay fit and also connect with voters. Despite his vigorous workout routine, Clinton was also a huge fan of McDonald’s, and many of his jogs ended up at a local McDonald’s establishment.

What’s the Difference Between Homo Sapiens and Neanderthals?

Recreation of a Neanderthal woman

Author Tony Dunnell

August 6, 2024

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When our prehistoric ancestors first emerged some 300,000 years ago, at least nine species of humans walked our planet. These included Homo sapiens (that’s us) as well as Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo antecessor, Homo floresiensis (nicknamed “the hobbits”), and Homo neanderthalensis. This latter species, otherwise known as the Neanderthals, is arguably the most famous of all our distant cousins. They are, after all, our closest extinct human relatives.

Fossil and genetic evidence indicates that Neanderthals and Homo sapiens evolved from a common ancestor between 700,000 and 300,000 years ago. And Neanderthal DNA is 99.7% identical to present-day human DNA. But the similarities don’t end there. Like Homo sapiens, Neanderthals lived in shelters, used fire in a controlled manner, and hunted and used tools. They may have even made art, including engravings and jewelry, although that remains an ongoing debate. We also know that Homo sapiens and Neanderthals interbred, and that all modern humans likely have some Neanderthal DNA.

Despite these similarities, there are a number of differences between Neanderthals and our early ancestors, ranging from their physical features to their way of living.

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Body Shape

Fossil remains show that Neanderthals were shorter and stockier than us. Their bodies were thicker and broader, with a wider pelvis, more muscle, and heavier bones. It’s possible that this larger physical build came about as an adaptation to the ice age, as the bigger build would have helped to consolidate heat in cold environments. A recent study of the fossilized teeth of eight Neanderthal children suggests the species may also have matured physically faster than us, reaching adulthood a few years before modern human children do.

Facial Features

Neanderthals had a long, low skull that differed from the more rounded skull of Homo sapiens. This gave rise to the prominent brow ridge above their eyes, one of the defining characteristics of the species. Other distinctive facial features included a large middle part of the face, angled cheek bones, large front teeth, and a particularly large nose. Some scientists believe the large nose was an adaptation to living in colder, drier environments, as the nose’s extra internal volume would have helped to moisten and warm the air they breathed. Recent studies show that modern humans have inherited genetic material from Neanderthals that impacted the shape of our noses.

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Intelligence

Neanderthals were not the brutish “cave men” they have sometimes been portrayed as. They were actually an intelligent and accomplished species of human, and not wildly different from Homo sapiens in terms of their mental faculties. However, a 2022 study published in the journal Science revealed a slight but possibly profound difference in the brain development of modern humans and Neanderthals. A gene mutation in Homo sapiens allows for the development of more neurons in the neocortex, an area of the brain involved in cognitive function, and this mutation is not found in Neanderthals and other primates. This change in the wiring of the brain may have given Homo sapiens a cognitive advantage — and could be one of the reasons we survived while the Neanderthals went extinct some 40,000 years ago.

Lifestyle

Studies suggest that Neanderthals lived in small bands, and likely never formed the large groups that Homo sapiens favored. We don’t know exactly how much larger one group was compared to another, but we do know Neanderthals had lower genetic diversity, which implies smaller social groupings. The more robust and heavier build of the Neanderthals may have necessitated this, as they required more energy and therefore more food, making large groups less attainable (especially in times of scant resources).

According to Bernard Wood, a paleoanthropologist at George Washington University, Neanderthals needed 600 to 700 more calories a day than modern humans today. In other words, they were not nearly as energy efficient as Homo sapiens — something that could be catastrophic during a famine. And while we don’t know whether Neanderthals and Homo sapiens differed in terms of their levels of aggression, the fact that the latter formed larger bands would have given them an advantage if conflict between the two occurred. Studies also suggest that Homo sapiens were using ranged weapons, including the bow and arrow and spear-throwers, whereas the Neanderthals were not, giving them a substantive advantage when it came to hunting and potential conflict.

Why Did Sailors Wear Bell-Bottom Pants?

Sailors leaning on fence

Author Kristina Wright

August 6, 2024

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Bell-bottoms have long been synonymous with sailors in the U.S. Navy: Just picture Sailor Jack, the patriotic mascot who first appeared on boxes of Cracker Jack in 1918, or Frank Sinatra and Gene Kelly dancing and singing in the 1945 musical Anchors Aweigh. During World War II, songwriter Moe Jaffe even reworked the lyrics of a bawdy 19th-century English sea shanty into “Bell Bottom Trousers,” a song about a woman’s love for her sailor, who wore “bell bottom trousers, coat of navy blue.”

The Navy first authorized wearing bell-bottom denim dungarees in 1901 as an alternative to heavier wool pants. With a few rare exceptions, bell-bottoms remained the official working uniform of enlisted sailors from 1913 through the 1990s. Some changes were made to the uniform over the years, and in the late 20th century pants with wide, straight legs replaced the flared bottoms, but they were still referred to as “bell-bottoms.” The classic image of the bell-bottom-wearing seaman lives on today — but why did sailors start wearing this style in the first place?

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Before There Was a Navy Uniform, There Were Bell-Bottoms

It’s hard to pinpoint exactly why bell-bottoms became the clothing of choice for the U.S. Navy, but we do know the tradition started in the early 19th century, at a time when the Navy lacked a standardized uniform for enlisted personnel. By the mid-1800s, Britain’s Royal Navy had also adopted the flared-pant style, and by the end of the 19th century, other seafaring militaries had joined the bell-bottom bandwagon, too. One of the first descriptions of the attire of U.S. Navy enlisted sailors comes from an 1813 Navy file about the arrival of Commodore Stephen Decatur in New York, which describes “glazed canvas hats with stiff brims, decked with streamers of ribbon, blue jackets buttoned loosely over waistcoats and blue trousers with bell bottoms.” One theory about the origin of these bell-bottoms is that before uniform regulations were established, Navy tailors may have been aiming to differentiate sailors’ dress from civilian clothing. But it turns out that bell-bottom trousers didn’t just serve a stylistic distinction — they were also a practical choice for sailors.

Wide-Leg Pants Were Safer and More Practical

In 1817, the secretary of the U.S. Navy issued regulations stating that sailors washing the decks of the ship should be barefoot and have their pants rolled up. The flared legs of bell-bottom trousers made rolling them up easier compared to pants with narrower legs. Historic photographs from the early 20th century reflect how this tradition endured, clearly showing creases where the sailors’ wide-legged pants had been rolled. But while naval folklore is filled with stories and speculation, there is no definitive answer for why bell-bottoms remained the sailors’ uniform. One theory is that bell-bottom dungarees were a practical choice for the naval environment due to their durability and ease of wearing. The flared legs also provided better mobility, which was essential on a ship with confined spaces and many ladders.

There’s also a widely held belief that bell-bottoms remained popular because of their potential use as a life preserver. Anyone who has ever fallen into a pool or lake while fully dressed knows how quickly wet clothes can become a burden. For a sailor swept overboard, heavy clothing wasn’t just an inconvenience, it was a dangerous liability. The extra fabric on bell-bottom pants made it easier to catch hold of a sailor who went overboard and, once overboard, a sailor could take off their pants without removing their shoes (which they would need if they made it to the shoreline). There are also stories of sailors being taught in boot camp how to knot the wide pant legs of their bell-bottoms and inflate them with air, turning them into a flotation device, but there’s no known evidence that the pants were ever used this way.

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The “Monkey Suit” Became a Navy Tradition

We may never know exactly how or why bell-bottom pants became the enduring uniform for sailors, but they remain a tangible link to a bygone seafaring era. Over the years, the U.S. Navy has made minor modifications to the uniform, but it has remained virtually unchanged for two centuries. Despite efforts to balance tradition and practicality, attempts to change the classic look have typically been met with resistance.

In 1971, the Navy decided to phase out the traditional uniform worn by enlisted sailors, which included bell-bottom dungarees, in favor of straight trousers worn by officers and chief petty officers. It took four years to fully implement the change, and many sailors were not happy about losing the uniform that they fondly referred to as a “monkey suit.” In a 1971 interview with The New York Times, Navy sailor Henry Knapp aptly called the look a “tradition and trademark.” Sailors also complained that the officer-style uniforms were difficult to keep clean and took up too much space in their shipboard storage. In 1977, the chief of naval operations decided to reverse the previous guideline and reauthorized the traditional uniform for the four lowest enlisted ranks.

In 1999, the Navy once again began phasing out the bell-bottom dungarees in favor of straight-legged pants, despite sailors’ complaints that the change would result in a loss of their distinctive look. Steeped in nautical nostalgia, bell-bottoms were a symbol of pride, and their flared legs created a unique silhouette that set sailors apart from other branches of the U.S. military. Bell-bottoms may never again be a mandatory item in a sailor’s sea bag, but this iconic piece of clothing will always have a place in naval history.

How the WWI Dazzle Ships Redefined Camouflage

Dazzle-painted ship, circa 1916

Author Mark DeJoy

August 6, 2024

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In 1917, at the height of World War I, England was in deep trouble. Germany had established an advantage in the waters surrounding the British Isles, and its policy of unrestricted warfare meant that even merchant ships were targets. Vessels were being sunk at a rate that threatened to completely incapacitate shipping to England, cutting off all manner of supplies. For the British to avoid certain defeat, they would need to find a way to protect the outgunned and outmaneuvered cargo ships. In response, the Royal Navy developed a novel paint scheme for British vessels that practically reinvented the concept of camouflage. These “dazzle ships,” as they were called, were a unique defense tactic that gave new meaning to the phrase “the art of war.”

The German navy had one of the most fearsome attack vessels of World War I: the Unterseeboot, often referred to by the abbreviation “U-boat.” Unterseeboot translates to “under the sea boat,” and these vessels were some of the first submarines used in wide-scale military operations. During the First World War, U-boats were deployed in retaliation for England’s blockade of the North Sea and English Channel; Germany’s strategy was to attack all shipping to England, and in effect create its own blockade. Germany issued a tacit threat that “a U-boat cannot spare the crews of merchant ships, but must send them and their ships to the bottom of the sea. All shipping should be warned and all merchant shipping to England should be brought to a halt in a short period of time.”

Of course, halting all shipping trade was not a feasible action for England. The Royal Navy countered with Q-ships, which were war vessels disguised as merchant ships to bait U-boats into surfacing for an attack, at which point the Q-ship would reveal its hidden weapons and fire on the outgunned U-boat. The tactic depended upon surprise, so its success was temporary: The Germans adjusted by switching from attacking with surface guns to attacking with torpedoes while still submerged. Torpedoes were a more costly weapon, but Germany was investing heavily in U-boats, increasing its fleet sevenfold between 1914 and 1917 in an effort to swiftly defeat England.

Why Did the British Wear Red Coats?

British soldiers in uniform

Author Tony Dunnell

August 1, 2024

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In February 1645, during the First English Civil War, the Parliament of England created the New Model Army. This single, standing army consisted of 22,000 regularly paid, well-disciplined, and properly trained men, with promotion gained on merit. To enhance the cohesion of this force, every soldier was supplied with a standardized uniform, which included a red coat.

It wasn’t long before these soldiers were unofficially dubbed “Redcoats,” a name that stuck through many conflicts to come. British soldiers only stopped wearing red when the khaki uniform was introduced during the Second Boer War (1899-1902), but even today, red coats are worn by British soldiers on ceremonial duty.

But why the color red? It may seem strange today, when camouflage is so commonplace in the design of military uniforms, that such a noticeable color was used on the battlefield, rather than green, brown, or khaki. But there were a number of reasons why red was chosen, including battlefield strategies and the simple need for a uniform that could be produced quickly and efficiently.

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Red Coats Weren’t Designed To Hide the Blood of Battle

First of all, British soldiers didn’t wear red to hide spilt blood, either their own or that of their enemies. There is no evidence to support this often-repeated explanation, and it doesn’t make much sense anyway. Not knowing that you are bleeding isn’t particularly helpful, and hiding any evidence of injuries from the enemy isn’t of much benefit amid the chaos of the battlefield. Also, a bloodstain on a red uniform would likely appear as black rather than red.

Red Wool Was Commonplace and Cheap

The most prosaic reason for the color of the Redcoats’ iconic jackets was one of simple economics. Supplying a large standing army with uniforms could be a costly business. As it happened, red wool was commonplace, cheap, and durable. While some dyes, such as kermes and cochineal, produced a deep scarlet favored by the wealthy and powerful, the wool used in the standard infantry jacket was colored red with a cheaper, brownish-red dye derived from the root of the madder plant, which had been used by numerous civilizations dating as far back as ancient Egypt.

Credit: Stock Montage/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

Red Uniforms Offered Battlefield Benefits

While camouflage uniforms are standard today, they wouldn’t have served much purpose on the battlefields of old, when infantrymen walked slowly into battle in ordered and obvious columns and lines. Guns were also highly inaccurate, making it difficult to target and hit a particular individual, no matter how easy they were to see. What’s more, having uniforms that blended into the environment would have actually been detrimental. For the generals in command, being able to see exactly where their soldiers were was vital in the smoke and chaos of battle (and also made it easier to spot deserters running from the fight). For the soldiers, meanwhile, red jackets made it easier to tell friend from foe on the battlefield, and in turn avoid friendly fire.

Credit: Epics/ Hulton Archive via Getty Images

Red Signified Prestige and Power

Apart from the more practical reasons for the Redcoats’ distinctive jackets, there was also the issue of British pride to consider. It’s been theorized that red was a preferred choice due to it being one of Britain’s national colors: red, white, and blue. The three colors appear on the Union Jack, and, more specifically, on the St. George’s Cross — the national flag of England — which depicts a red cross on a white background. Eventually, the Redcoats themselves became a symbol of British rule both at home and abroad. The use of red by imperial soldiers over a period of nearly three centuries made the bright and distinctive uniform a powerful symbol of the British Empire.

Why Is ‘Red Tape’ Associated With Bureaucracy?

Documents with red ribbon

Author Kristina Wright

August 1, 2024

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The English word “bureaucracy” originated in the early 19th century, referring to an administrative system where decisions were made by a group of nonelected officials. Today, the term can refer to the regulatory system of any public or private institution, including corporations, organizations, and governments. And in a society where laws are upheld based on a set of established standards and practices, keeping everything running smoothly can require an almost mind-boggling array of rules and regulations.

Such an excessive amount of official systems and processes is often referred to as “red tape.” But how and when exactly did that colorful term become associated with bureaucracy?

Credit: andrew payne / Alamy Stock Photo

Red Tape Was Used To Bind Official Documents

The use of red tape to bind documents has been noted for centuries, but its exact origins remain murky. The practice may date as far back as the 11th century, to the red, ribbonlike cloth that English clerks used to secure official documents. For hundreds of years, correspondence was tied with tape and the ends were sealed with melted wax, so that the contents couldn’t be read by anyone other than the intended recipient. The only way to access the documents was to cut the seal, which around the 18th century led to the common idiom “cutting through the red tape.”

Some historians suggest the use of red tape for binding government records may have started later, during King Charles V’s reign over Spain in the 16th century, when important documents were secured with red tape to distinguish them from other papers. The color red has long signified royalty and wealth, and red dyes such as kermes and cochineal produced a deep scarlet that were favored by the rich and powerful. Considering the high cost these dyes at the time, it’s unlikely that red ribbon was used for anything other than the most important official documents, at least initially.

Although red tape bindings had already been around for some time, the first written reference in English to the words “red tape” appeared in 1658, in an advertisement in the Publick Intelligencer describing a lost “little bundle of Papers tied with a red Tape.” By the end of the 17th century, the tradition of using red tape to secure official documents had crossed the Atlantic and become standard practice in the American colonies as well. In 1696, a law was passed that stated records of public land boundaries in the colony of Maryland were required to be “seal’d with his Excellency’s Seal of Arms, on a Red Cross with Red Tape.” Other important government documents, including the Stamp Act of 1765, were also secured with red tape.

“Red Tape” Became a Negative Term for Bureaucracy

Though a regal red binding once signified order and organization, the term “red tape” eventually took on a derogatory connotation, meaning an overly complicated process of rules and paperwork. This meaning of the term has been around for almost 200 years. One of the earliest known uses is found in the 1850 work Latter Day Pamphlets by Scottish author Thomas Carlyle. He wrote, “From all corners of the wide British Dominion there rises one complaint against the ineffectuality of what are nicknamed our ‘red-tape’ establishments, our Government Offices, Colonial Office, Foreign Office and the others.”

Despite the growing negative association, the practice of using red tape to bind important documents was widespread by the end of the American Civil War. According to the National Archives Foundation in Washington, D.C., Americans first used the term “red tape” in reference to bureaucracy because of how difficult it was for Civil War veterans to obtain their tape-bound records in order to file pension claims. While the term “red tape” predates the Civil War era, it became an increasingly popular phrase in English through the 19th and 20th centuries.

Credit: Deborah Ernest/ Alamy Stock Photo

Red Tape Bindings Have Found a New Life as Mementos

Though we still refer to “cutting through the red tape” today, the tradition of binding documents with colorful cloth has been replaced by other methods, including digitizing original records. Some archivists still use twill tape to bind documents, but they opt for undyed tape rather than red, because the red ink can fade or rub off onto the paper. However, red ribbon binding remained in use for a surprisingly long time — until the 1980s — and hundreds of miles of red tape have been used to bind billions of historic documents.

For more than two decades, the National Archives has been shifting the use of red tape from its historic files to its gift shop. The idea to monetize this bit of governmental history was conceived in the 1990s by a volunteer who was removing the red bindings from Civil War documents so they could be transferred to microfilm. In 1997, the first snippets of red tape were sold in the National Archives gift shop for $5. Today, those bits of faded fabric have been incorporated into a wide range of jewelry and mementos for tourists who want to own a piece of bureaucratic history.

The Real Story of Anastasia Romanov

Grand Duchess Anastasia

Author Nicole Villeneuve

August 1, 2024

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The early 20th century was a time of significant turmoil in Russia. The Romanov dynasty, which had ruled Russia for more than 300 years, was in its twilight, facing increasing opposition over economic hardship and disastrous World War I military failures. In March 1917, the Russian Revolution forced Tsar Nicholas II to step down; just over a year later, he and his wife and children were killed in secret by Bolshevik revolutionaries.

For years, the fate of the Romanov family was shrouded in mystery, leaving room for myths about their survival. Theories about one family member in particular — the tsar’s youngest daughter, Anastasia — flourished. The grand duchess inspired not only conspiracies and impostors, but Broadway plays and Hollywood movies. More than 100 years later, her story remains one of the 20th century’s most compelling mysteries. But who exactly was Anastasia, and what really happened to her?

Anastasia Nikolaevna Romanov, the fourth and youngest daughter of Tsar Nicholas II and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, was born on June 18, 1901. (Their son Alexei, the heir to the throne, was born three years later.) Anastasia was known for her sense of humor and mischievous personality. Gleb Botkin, the son of the family’s physician, said that “in naughtiness, she was a true genius,” describing her as “witty, vivacious, hopelessly stubborn, [and] delightfully impertinent.”

When her father was forced to abdicate the throne in early 1917, the lives of Anastasia and her family were uncertain. The Romanovs and their staff were sent to Siberia, where they lived in relative peace and normalcy, all the while holding out hope that they could make their way to England, where Nicholas II’s cousin, King George V, reigned. But later that year, after Vladimir Lenin’s Bolsheviks seized power, the royal family was relocated again, to a house in the Russian city of Yekaterinburg. It would be their last move.

How Did the Canary Come To Be Associated With Coal Mines?

Canary in coal mine cage

Author Tony Dunnell

July 31, 2024

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Humans have been mining since prehistoric times, when flint was excavated for its use in tools and weapons. Since then, we have gone on to mine all manner of minerals, from copper and gold to the rare earth elements used to create the components in many of our modern devices.

Yet mining, and underground mining in particular, is extremely dangerous, with risks such as cave-ins, explosions, toxic air, and extreme temperatures. It may seem strange, then, that such a risky profession is associated with the small and spritely songbird Serinus canaria, otherwise known as the canary.

Just how did this tiny, tuneful member of the finch family become connected with going deep down into the perilous dark of the world’s coal mines? Well, as it turns out, we owe quite a debt to this brave little bird.

The link between canaries and coal mines began with the British physiologist and philosopher John Scott Haldane (1860-1936), a pioneering specialist in the physiology of respiration. Haldane’s many contributions to the field include his investigations into decompression sickness, which helped to improve safety for undersea divers, and an early gas mask designed to protect soldiers against poison gas in World War I. And it was Haldane who first proposed an innovative safety measure for miners. Following his investigation into the cause of an 1896 explosion at Tylorstown Colliery in Wales, Haldane concluded that carbon monoxide buildup was to blame for the disaster. So, he suggested using mice or birds to monitor gas levels in the mines, as he knew that these animals were far more sensitive than humans to poison gases.

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