7 Roman Emperors Everyone Should Know

Bust of Augustus

Author Timothy Ott

July 24, 2024

Love it?77

Although Rome reached the pinnacle of its power and influence during the imperial era, which stretched from approximately 27 BCE to 476 CE, it wasn’t always easy for emperors during this period to run a tight ship. Not only did these imperial rulers endure threats from both hostile invaders and supposed allies who secretly plotted to gain power for themselves, but they also faced the myriad challenges of maintaining order among the disparate cultures of an empire that touched three continents and encompassed nearly 1.7 million square miles at its peak.

While some emperors succumbed to the pressures of the job and the temptation of corruption, others proved to have the vision and mettle to adjust as needed and propel the empire forward for the next generation. Here are seven Roman emperors who excelled in the role, helping ensure that the memory of Rome would endure for posterity.

Credit: Print Collector/ Hulton Fine Art Collection via Getty Images

Augustus (27 BCE-14 CE)

Although Julius Caesar proclaimed himself supreme leader in the dying days of the Roman Republic, it was his grandnephew and adopted son Augustus who marked a new era as Rome’s first emperor. Rich from the spoils of victory over Cleopatra’s Egypt, Augustus embarked on a building program that included necessary projects such as new roads and aqueducts, as well as awe-inspiring marvels including the Temple of Apollo Palatinus and the Theater of Marcellus. He also founded a postal system, installed a police and firefighting force, and secured the ever-expanding empire’s borders by establishing a standing army. While his boast of having transformed Rome from a city of clay to one of marble was hyperbole, it’s no exaggeration to say that Augustus’ impressive 40-year rule kick-started the two-century period of prosperity known as the Pax Romana, or “Roman Peace.”

Vespasian (69-79 CE)

The end of Emperor Nero's controversial reign in 68 CE threatened to plunge the Roman Empire into further chaos, as a string of successors failed to establish stability in what became known as the "Year of the Four Emperors." Into that turbulence stepped Vespasian, who quelled the bloody uprisings that had accompanied him to the top and established the Flavian dynasty that endured for the next three decades. Known for his frugal ways — he once was allegedly pelted with turnips for his stinginess as proconsul of Africa — Vespasian unapologetically raised taxes to replenish the coffers that had been drained during Nero's rule. And while he used the cash to fund massive construction projects such as the Colosseum, the emperor also drew praise for showing restraint when it came to indulging in personal luxuries. Although his reign wasn't a particularly long one, Vespasian left enough of an impression that the Roman senator and historian Tacitus noted he was "the only emperor who had changed for the better."

Trajan (98-117 CE)

The second of the "Five Good Emperors" (along with Nerva, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius) that comprised the Nerva-Antonine dynasty that ruled from 96-180 CE, Trajan stakes a legitimate claim to being the greatest ruler of Rome's heyday. With his treasury bolstered by the conquest of Dacia (modern-day Romania), Trajan funneled the bounty toward the building of new roads, bridges, and aqueducts, as well as a magnificent forum with its towering Trajan's Column in the city of Rome. He also had the common sense to share the wealth with the people, and he was widely beloved for reducing taxes and expanding social welfare programs that included the "alimenta" for poor and orphaned children. Trajan continued his military campaigns through his final years, and by the end of his rule, Rome had expanded to the largest territory the empire ever saw. His accomplishments were of such magnitude that future emperors were inaugurated with the words, "Sis felicior Augusto, melior Traiano," meaning "May you be more fortunate than Augustus, and better than Trajan."

Credit: Print Collector/ Hulton Archive via Getty Images

Hadrian (117-138 CE)

It's tough to follow in the military footsteps of a warrior-king like Trajan, and to his credit, Hadrian didn't make much of an effort to do so. He instead focused on consolidating and strengthening the empire's borders, a strategy underscored by the construction of the 73-mile Hadrian's Wall across modern-day England, which is still standing today. Hadrian also commissioned major structures such as the Pantheon, codified Roman law with the creation of the Perpetual Edict, and was a devoted patron of the arts. Although he rankled some by embracing Greek culture and flouting his companionship with a Greek youth named Antinous, Hadrian's policies unquestionably kept the empire running at full throttle through the glory days of the second century CE.

Credit: Heritage Images/ Hulton Archive via Getty Images

Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE)

A devotee of Stoicism, a Hellenistic school of philosophy emphasizing the pursuit of virtue, Marcus Aurelius is best remembered for the collection of self-reflections that comprise his famed work Meditations. Ironically, Rome's philosopher-king had little time to enjoy the inner peace he sought; his two-decade reign was marked by armed conflict with Parthians to the east and invading Germanic tribes from the north, as well as a devastating plague that wiped out millions of Roman citizens. Despite the hardships, Marcus Aurelius was largely successful at maintaining the prosperity forged by his predecessors. However, he also garners criticism from historians for passing the empire to his son Commodus, whose inept reign is considered to have brought an end to the Pax Romana.

Credit: Kean Collection/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

Diocletian (284-305 CE)

How does a floundering empire overcome the half-century of infighting and territorial loss that would later be coined the "Crisis of the Third Century"? By installing an emperor with the confidence to distribute power across its far-flung boundaries. Known as the tetrarchy, this system featured two senior leaders known as augusti and a pair of junior leaders called caesars who ostensibly ruled their respective jurisdictions, though Diocletian clearly held sway above the others. More of an administrative than a battlefield genius, Diocletian increased the size of Rome's army, doubled the number of provinces, separated the powers of civic and military personnel, and established a state budget based on tax revenue. Although the tetrarchy fizzled after his reign ended, the emperor's success at forging two decades of stability was exemplified by his peaceful retirement instead of a forced abdication or murderous coup.

Constantine (306-337 CE)

Amid the jousting for power that resumed with Diocletian's departure, Constantine the Great emerged to become one of the most transformative figures of the empire's lengthy history. Unlike his predecessors, who either barely tolerated Christians or outright persecuted them, Constantine wholeheartedly embraced the growing religion. He claimed to have seen the sign of the cross in the sky before the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312 CE, and the following year, he officially granted tolerance to Christians by issuing the Edict of Milan. After claiming sole control of the empire in 324 CE, Constantine moved his capital 850 miles east to the rebuilt city of Constantinople (formerly named Byzantium), and lured new residents with promises of free bread and citizenship. While Rome succumbed to invaders in 476 CE, the city built by its namesake continued to flourish as the Christian-populated seat of the Eastern Roman Empire for another millennium.

What the New York City Skyline Looked Like 100 Years Ago

New York City, mid-1920s

Author Mark DeJoy

July 24, 2024

Love it?35

Rising up from the inlet of the Hudson River, New York City has one of the world’s most recognizable and expansive skylines. It’s a built environment defined by skyscrapers, with towering historical icons such as the Empire State Building, Chrysler Building, 30 Rockefeller Plaza, and the Woolworth Building. The city — Manhattan in particular — has a legacy of cutting-edge vertical architecture dating back to the late 19th century. But 100 years ago, many of the city’s most famous buildings didn’t exist yet.

In 1924, New York City was hardly in its infancy. It had been the most populated city in the United States since 1790, and it grew to become the second most populated city in the world by 1900. As of the 1920 census, the city was home to more than 5.6 million people (compared to roughly 8.8 million today). At the time, New York’s tallest buildings were concentrated in lower Manhattan, the colonial center of the city, which by 1910 contained a bona fide vertical skyline. When downtown land became too scarce and costly, developers began building skyscrapers in midtown, which was a transportation hub thanks to Penn Station and Grand Central Terminal. But this development didn’t take place until the late 1920s. In 1924, the original Waldorf-Astoria Hotel was located at the site of the eventual Empire State Building, and the iconic twin towers of the World Trade Center were still 50 years away. Let’s travel back a hundred years for a glimpse at a very different New York City.

Credit: The New York Historical Society/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

Lower Manhattan skyline south of the Brooklyn Bridge, 1895.

The construction of tall buildings in Manhattan was spurred by two things: a finite amount of space on the narrow island, and the advent of the passenger elevator, which enabled developers to add higher floors that could be accessed without climbing stairs. Construction was completed on the city’s first two elevator-equipped office buildings in 1875, which historians consider New York’s proto-skyscrapers: the 11-story, 260-foot Tribune Building and the 10-story, 230-foot Western Union Building. The engineering capabilities of the time meant that both structures were built with load-bearing exterior walls — the walls of high buildings were designed to taper to greater thickness on the ground floor in order to provide support for the top floors. Ground-floor walls for a 150-foot building needed to be 3 feet wide; they had to be even wider for greater heights, thus reducing space on the ground floor. This created a sort of practical (and economic) cap on building height, and both the Tribune Building and Western Union Building remained New York City’s tallest occupiable buildings for many years.

Such height limitations were solved in the 1880s by a method known as skeleton construction, in which support for each floor was provided by an iron or steel frame, replacing the need for load-bearing walls. The first structure in New York City built using skeleton construction was the Tower Building in lower Manhattan. At 11 stories tall, it didn’t become NYC’s tallest building when it was completed in 1889 (it used skeleton construction to overcome a narrow lot size, not to achieve grandiosity), but it did provide the means for the city’s skyline to take shape.

What Did an English Earl Actually Do?

Anglo-Saxon earls

Author Kristina Wright

July 24, 2024

Love it?59

Even if you’re not from the U.K., you’re likely familiar with the titles of British nobility from countless movies and TV shows. Known as the peerage system, this noble hierarchy consists of five ranks today: duke, marquess, earl, viscount, and baron. The title of earl — the oldest in the peerage system — dates back to the end of the early medieval period, during the reign of King Canute (or Cnut) in the 11th century. It is equivalent to the rank of count in other European countries and has no feminine form, so a female with this title is known as a countess.

In the peerage system, nobles are often referred to by their titles rather than their surnames. These titles typically correspond to the names of an estate, earldom, or territory associated with the noble family. For example, Richard Neville, known as the “Kingmaker” for his pivotal role in the Wars of the Roses, was best known by his title, the Earl of Warwick.

Today, there are around 190 earls in the U.K., but while the title still carries prestige, the role is mostly ceremonial, with few formal responsibilities. Yet during the Middle Ages, earls were powerful leaders who wielded considerable influence over their territory and the kingdom at large. Here are a few of the duties that English earls were once expected to manage.

Earls Governed Large Regions of the Kingdom

During the early medieval period, before the creation of the titles of duke and marquess in 1337 and 1386, respectively, earls were the highest-ranking members of the nobility, second only to the royal family. Earls were appointed by the ruling monarch and were responsible for governing large areas of the kingdom. The lands they oversaw could include several shires (counties), collectively known as a “fief” or “earldom.”

Earls acted as royal governors, representing the king in their territories. They oversaw their estates, enforced royal laws throughout the earldom, made judgments in county courts, and collected fines and taxes for the crown from the people living on their lands. Earls were entitled to a share of the money they collected on behalf of the crown, so their lands served as a source of great wealth as well as power.

After the Norman Conquest in 1066, William the Conqueror began to make changes to the traditional system of nobility. He sought to limit the power of earls by ending their judicial control and tax-collecting responsibilities. They were also restricted to overseeing a single county and many of their former duties were taken over by the county sheriff.

Earls Served as Advisers to the King

The United Kingdom’s upper house of Parliament, known as the House of Lords, has its roots in a body of government from Anglo-Saxon England (the period of English history before the Norman Conquest) called the witan. Named for the Anglo-Saxon phrase “witenagemot,” or “meeting of the wise men,” the witan was made up of noble lords, including earls and barons, as well as religious officials such as abbots and bishops. This group served as a council of advisers to the king (England did not have a ruling queen until Mary I was crowned in 1553). The king would call on the witan to get support for decisions such as granting land, making new laws, or levying taxes.

In the 14th century, two distinct houses of Parliament were established. The House of Commons was made up of representatives from the towns and counties, while the House of Lords was composed of religious leaders, known as lords spiritual, and nobles, including earls and other members of the peerage, known as lords temporal. Before the Norman Conquest, the title of earl was not automatically hereditary, and the territory that defined an earldom was not permanent. By the reign of King Richard II in the 14th century, earldoms were either hereditary or life appointments, and by the 15th century, the vast majority of lords temporal in the House of Lords had inherited their titles. This tradition continued for centuries, and it wasn’t until 1999 that nobles’ automatic right to inherit a seat in Parliament was abolished.

Medieval Earls Were Also Military Leaders

In Anglo-Saxon England, a role known as ealdorman served as a high-ranking court official responsible for enforcing the king’s laws within a local shire. The office of ealdorman evolved into the title of earl, a word of Scandinavian origin that was introduced during the reign of the Danish King Canute (Cnut) in the 11th century. Earls assumed many of the leadership duties of the role: They were tasked with keeping the peace, exercising justice, and raising armies in the king’s name. Under the feudal system, earls granted small parcels of land to knights and vassals in exchange for military services. Knights helped enforce the laws, defending landholdings and seizing other nearby lands, and could become lords themselves.

After William the Conqueror reduced the size of earldoms, earls took on the role of military governors over smaller, more strategic areas of land. They were responsible for overseeing coastal areas and vulnerable borders, and had the authority to imprison lawbreakers. In later centuries, the number of earls and earldoms were reduced through extinction of titles and sale of land. By the 1800s, the role of earl was increasingly focused on social obligations, helping to facilitate important alliances for the crown and strategic marriages between nobles. Despite the reduction in formal responsibilities and landholdings, earls and other members of the British peerage continued to hold a substantial amount of power through personal wealth and political influence as members of Parliament.

The Meaning Behind 9 Famous Middle Initials

Ursula K. Le Guin

Author Bennett Kleinman

July 18, 2024

Love it?57

Styling your name to include a middle initial is far less common now than when it first became widely popular in the 19th century. As the U.S. saw a massive population boom, many people began using their middle initial to help distinguish themselves from other people with similar names. Throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century, abbreviating your middle name was popular among everyone from presidents to activists. Today, it’s hard to imagine John Rockefeller’s name without the “D” or Susan Anthony without the “B,” but at the same time, many people aren’t sure what those letters actually stand for. Here’s the meaning behind some of history’s most famous but mysterious middle initials.

Credit: General Photographic Agency/ Hulton Archive via Getty Images

John D. Rockefeller

Business magnate John D. Rockefeller’s name has long been associated with wealth, as he’s considered by some metrics to be the richest person in U.S. history. His last name came from his father, businessman and notorious con artist William Rockefeller Sr., but his middle initial stands for Davison, the maiden name of his mother, Eliza. The Davisons were Baptists of Scotch Irish descent who lived on a farm in central New York, near where William did business. Eliza and William married in 1837 and named their first son John Davison Rockefeller. As the young Rockefeller rose to prominence, he styled his name with the middle initial “D,” as was the fashion at the time. He later named his own son John Davison Rockefeller Jr. — a tradition that continued in future generations.

Ulysses S. Grant

President Ulysses S. Grant was actually named Hiram Ulysses Grant when he was born on April 27, 1822, in Point Pleasant, Ohio. At the age of 17, he adopted the middle initial “S,” though it wasn’t by choice. The initial was actually due to a clerical mistake at the United States Military Academy at West Point. In 1839, Grant was nominated to West Point by Thomas Hamer, an Ohio congressman, who got confused while filling out the application. Hamer knew that Grant often went by Ulysses instead of Hiram, so he put “Ulysses” down as Grant’s first name. The application also required a middle initial, so Hamer wrote “S” for Simpson, the surname of Grant’s mother. Grant futilely tried to correct the error, but the name “Ulysses S. Grant” stuck. In an 1844 letter to his future wife Julia Dent, Grant wrote, “You know I have an ‘S’ in my name and don’t know what it stand for.”

Credit: PhotoQuest/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

Susan B. Anthony

Women’s rights activist Susan B. Anthony was born just Susan Anthony on February 15, 1820. As middle initials became increasingly popular, she and her sisters had a “great craze for middle initials,” as Anthony later put it in an 1896 interview. As a young girl, she opted to start going by the name Susan B. Anthony, drawing inspiration from her aunt and namesake Susan Anthony Brownell. Anthony was said to dislike the full name Brownell, and preferred to use just the initial “B” for her own middle name.

Credit: Underwood Archives/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

Warren G. Harding

Gamaliel is the name of the wise man from Acts 5:34-40 of the New Testament — and it’s also the middle name of America’s 29th president, Warren G. Harding. His parents chose the name Gamaliel for their son as they were both religious Christians — Warren’s father, George, was a Baptist and his mother, Phoebe, was Methodist. Unfortunately, the Harding administration was marred by unwise decisions and unchecked corruption, leaving Harding’s legacy far less esteemed than that of his biblical namesake.

Credit: MPI/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

Booker T. Washington

Booker T. Washington was a prolific educator born into slavery in 1856 and freed during the Civil War. His mother, Jane, initially named her son Booker Taliaferro (pronounced “Tolliver”). This was a common surname in Virginia, where Jane and Booker lived at the time. However, the man who enslaved Booker refused to use the name Taliaferro, so the child was brought up unaware of his birth name. Booker later enrolled in school at the age of 16, and the school required its pupils to have a last name. He selected Washington, after his mother’s husband, Washington Ferguson. Booker later learned about his original surname from his mother, and he immediately adopted it as his new middle name. For the rest of his life, he went by the name Booker T. Washington.

Credit: Bert Hardy/ Picture Post via Getty Images

Dwight D. Eisenhower

Five-star General and U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower is one of the most famous people in American history. He also has one of the most mysterious middle initials. His middle name is far less well known than, say, John Fitzgerald Kennedy or Lyndon Baines Johnson, yet the “D” simply stands for David, which was actually Eisenhower’s first name at birth. The man lovingly referred to as “Ike” was born David Dwight Eisenhower on October 14, 1890, to his parents David and Ida. However, his mother wanted to avoid confusion from having two Davids in the house, and chose to call her son by his middle name. From a young age, the boy went by the name Dwight at home, even though documents such as his high school yearbook listed him as “David Eisenhower.” As he entered adulthood, Eisenhower kept the name Dwight and shortened David to a middle initial.

Credit: FPG/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

Cecil B. DeMille

Cecil B. DeMille is one of the founders of American cinema, as the visionary behind such legendary films as The Greatest Show on Earth and The Ten Commandments. He was born Cecil Blount de Mille on August 12, 1881, a name that honored both of his grandmothers. The name Cecil came from his maternal grandmother Cecilia Wolff, while Blount came from his paternal grandmother Margaret Blount Hoyt. As he rose to the top of the film world, Cecil styled his name with the middle initial “B.” He also changed the spelling of his last name: While he continued to use the name de Mille in private, he preferred the way DeMille looked in a professional sense.

Harry S. Truman

Harry S. Truman is unique among U.S. presidents in that he’s the only one whose middle initial isn’t an abbreviation at all. His parents gave him the “S” to honor both of his grandfathers — Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young — but kept it to just that single letter. Because of this, Truman wrote his full name without a period after the “S” for most of his life, though that changed during his presidency. He was told by an editor for the Chicago Style Manual that omitting a period was bad grammar, and that it would potentially set a bad example for America’s youth. From then on, Truman signed his name as “Harry S. Truman.”

Ursula K. Le Guin

Ursula K. Le Guin is among the most renowned science fiction authors of the 20th century, winning both the Hugo and Nebula awards for her 1969 novel The Left Hand of Darkness. Her middle initial “K” stands for her maiden name Kroeber, as she was born to Alfred and Theodora Kroeber in 1929 in Berkeley, California. Both of her parents were highly regarded anthropologists, and her father earned the first doctorate in anthropology ever awarded by Columbia University. Given their elite status in the world of academia, the Kroebers befriended many notable intellectual figures, including nuclear scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer. (The “J” stands for Julius, his father’s name.) Ursula even based Shevek, the protagonist in her novel The Dispossessed, after her parents’ famous friend.

The Secret Service Code Names of 9 U.S. Presidents

Secret Service men

Author Bennett Kleinman

July 18, 2024

Love it?35

Ever since Harry S. Truman’s presidential terms, from 1945 until 1953, presidents have been given descriptive code names used by the Secret Service to provide an added layer of anonymity when discussing the movements of the commander in chief. The process of selecting these code names is somewhat shrouded in mystery. Sometimes, the White House Communications Agency (WHCA) comes up with a list of words starting with the same letter, and the president chooses something from the list that resonates with them. Other times, the Secret Service simply assigns one of the WHCA-supplied names to the president.

But how does the WHCA come up with the list to begin with? The agency is tight-lipped about its exact process, but a spokesperson once said the words are usually determined by “sheer whim.” While the code names often reflect something unique about the leader — whether it’s a nod to their personality, principles, or background — other times, the inspiration isn’t entirely clear.

Presidential code names started as an added security measure at a time when it was easier to intercept electronic communications. Yet despite modern advancements in technology, the tradition has endured, and these nicknames have become not-so-secret pieces of presidential lore along the way. Here are some of the U.S. presidents’ Secret Service code names, and the suspected meaning behind them.

Credit: Historical/ Corbis Historical via Getty Images

Harry S. Truman: “General”

Harry S. Truman was the first U.S. president with a documented Secret Service code name. “General,” though not a military title he ever held, reflects his leadership as a field artillery captain during World War II — as well as his critical, though controversial, decisiveness as president.

Dwight D. Eisenhower: “Providence”

Dwight D. Eisenhower’s code name, “Providence,” echoed his reputation for being a guiding force of virtue and purpose for many Americans. According to the Eisenhower National Historic Site, he became known as “Scorecard” after he retired, due to his love of golf.

Credit: GraphicaArtis/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

John F. Kennedy: “Lancer”

Lancelot, a legendary knight of King Arthur’s court, was the inspiration for the charismatic president’s code name, “Lancer.” Following John F. Kennedy’s assassination, the Kennedy administration’s nickname of “Camelot” was popularized by former First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy, solidifying this romanticized vision of JFK’s presidency.

Lyndon B. Johnson: “Volunteer”

In 1941, when Lyndon B. Johnson was serving as a Texas Democrat in the House of Representatives, the U.S. entered World War II. In a move that likely inspired his nickname, Johnson became the first member of Congress to volunteer for active duty. He served as a lieutenant commander in the Navy until members of Congress were recalled to Washington in 1942.

Richard Nixon: “Searchlight”

The code name “Searchlight” took a prophetic turn when an early morning break-in of the Democratic National Committee headquarters led to the unraveling of the Watergate scandal. But the name’s initial link to Richard Nixon may have come from his time as a U.S. representative, when he played a role in — and gained political prominence from — the investigation of a U.S. State Department official who was accused of spying for the Soviet Union.

Jimmy Carter: “Deacon”

Jimmy Carter was a devout Christian before, during, and after his presidency. In the years following his time in the Oval Office, he continued to teach Sunday school, making the name “Deacon,” referencing a church official, particularly apt.

Ronald Reagan: “Rawhide”

The name “Rawhide” drew not only from Ronald Reagan’s role in Hollywood Westerns, but also from the fact that he was a real-life rancher, with a small ranch outside Santa Barbara, California.

Bill Clinton: “Eagle”

Although Bill Clinton’s code name, like most, was never explained, it has been speculated that it has to do with his connection to the Boy Scouts of America. Although he did not achieve Eagle Scout rank (Gerald Ford is the only president to do so), he served as a Cub Scout in his youth, and he spoke at the 1997 National Scout Jamboree.

George H.W. Bush: “Timberwolf”

The reason for George H.W. Bush’s code name, “Timberwolf,” isn’t known, but the 41st U.S. president was an avid outdoorsman who championed environmental protection.

All the U.S. Military Ranks, In Order

U.S. military symbols

Author Bennett Kleinman

July 18, 2024

Love it?52

The U.S. military is divided into six branches: the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, and Space Force. Each has its own individual hierarchy, featuring the most accomplished and decorated officers at the very top and recent enlistees at the bottom. Along this chain of command you’ll find ranks such as captains, colonels, and sergeants, all of which are familiar terms. But unless you’ve served in the military, you may be wondering how those ranks stack up, and who answers to whom.

In the military, there’s no ambiguity about who your commanding officer is. There’s a firmly established chain of command so each rank knows where they stand, though the exact terminology varies among the different branches of the military. Let’s look at the ranks of the U.S. military in ascending order, from the lowest to highest positions.

Army

The U.S. Army is the oldest of the six military branches, established on June 14, 1775. It’s also the most heavily populated branch, containing more than 460,000 active service members and many thousands more in the National Guard and Army Reserves. At the very bottom of the chain of command is the rank of private — a title generally given to new soldiers in basic training. Over time, members of the Army may rise up the ranks to the role of sergeant, which is a leadership post that commands various platoons and sections.

Above sergeant is the rank of warrant officer. These officers are generally highly specialized technicians in areas such as intelligence or military policing. Above that is the highest grouping of ranks in the Army, the commissioned officers, who are confirmed by the U.S. Senate. The lowest commissioned officer rank is second lieutenant, and the highest is a special wartime rank called general of the Army. This role has been held by an exclusive group of people including Dwight D. Eisenhower and Douglas MacArthur during World War II. There is, however, an even more prestigious rank known as general of the Armies. This role has been conferred only three times in history: to John J. Pershing after World War I, and posthumously to both George Washington and Ulysses S. Grant.

Here are the ranks of the U.S. Army in ascending order:

Private
Private second class
Private first class
Specialist
Corporal
Sergeant
Staff sergeant
Sergeant first class
First sergeant
Master sergeant
Command sergeant major
Sergeant major
Sergeant major of the Army
Warrant officer 1
Chief warrant officer 2
Chief warrant officer 3
Chief warrant officer 4
Chief warrant officer 5
Second lieutenant
First lieutenant
Captain
Major
Lieutenant colonel
Colonel
Brigadier general
Major general
Lieutenant general
General
General of the Army

Marines

The Marines were founded on November 10, 1775, and there are just under 200,000 active service members currently enlisted. While this branch has its own unique identity and history, many of its ranks are similar, if not identical, to those of the Army — with a few minor differences.

The lowest four ranks of the Marines are private, private first class, lance corporal, and corporal, in ascending order. The Marines also have roles not found in the Army, such as gunnery sergeant, instead of a sergeant first class, and master gunnery sergeant, equivalent to the Army’s sergeant major. The highest rank within the Marines is general, and there is no role reserved specifically for wartime.

Navy

Though America’s Continental Navy was established on October 13, 1775, it wasn’t until 1794 that the United States Navy was formally founded. As of 2023, the U.S. Navy has nearly 500,000 total personnel between the active service members and those in the Navy Reserve.

The Navy uses very different ranking terminology than the Army. At the bottom is the role of seaman recruit, equivalent in scope to private. Many of the commissioned naval officers are given unique titles as well, such as ensign — which is equivalent to second lieutenant in the other branches — commander, and captain. The highest role in the Navy is admiral, followed by a special wartime position called fleet admiral. This unique title was held by only four people during World War II: William Halsey Jr., Ernest J. King, William D. Leahy, and Chester W. Nimitz.

Here are the ranks of the U.S. Navy in ascending order:

Seaman recruit
Seaman apprentice
Seaman
Petty officer third class
Petty officer second Class
Petty officer first class
Chief petty officer
Senior chief petty officer
Fleet/command master chief petty officer
Master chief petty officer
Master chief petty officer of the Navy
USN warrant officer 1
USN chief warrant officer 2
USN chief warrant officer 3
USN chief warrant officer 4
USN chief warrant officer 5
Ensign
Lieutenant junior grade
Lieutenant
Lieutenant commander
Commander
Captain
Rear admiral lower half
Rear admiral upper half
Vice admiral
Admiral
Fleet admiral

Coast Guard

The Coast Guard’s history dates back to 1790, when Congress authorized several vessels to enforce tariff and trade laws. It wasn’t until 1915 that this branch earned its current name, as Congress formally merged the Revenue Cutter Service and the Life-Saving Service that year. The chain of command for the Coast Guard is nearly identical to that of the Navy, the only difference being that the Coast Guard has fewer chief warrant officer ranks.

Air Force

The Air Force was established on September 18, 1947, under the National Security Act (which also established the Defense Department and CIA). The U.S. has the world’s largest Air Force, with more than 300,000 active duty members and hundreds of thousands more playing pivotal support roles. The lowest rank in the Air Force is airman basic. From there, many of the warrant officers and commissioned officer ranks are identical to the ranks used by the Army and Marines. There is also a special wartime rank at the very top — general of the Air Force. This was held by only one person in history, Henry H. Arnold, who oversaw U.S. air forces during World War II.

Here are the ranks of the U.S. Air Force in ascending order:

Airman basic
Airman
Airman first class
Senior airman
Staff sergeant
Technical sergeant
First sergeant
Master sergeant
First sergeant
Senior master sergeant
Command chief master sergeant
First sergeant
Chief master sergeant
Chief master sergeant of the Air Force
Second lieutenant
First lieutenant
Captain
Major
Lieutenant colonel
Colonel
Brigadier general
Major general
Lieutenant general
General
General of the Air Force

Space Force

The Space Force is the most recent branch of the U.S. military, established on December 20, 2019. At the bottom of the chain of command are the roles of specialist 1, 2, 3, and 4, followed by sergeant. The role of specialist is akin to the lower ranks of other branches such as private, seaman, and airman. The rank of specialist 4, however, carries slightly more responsibility and is equivalent to the Army rank of corporal. As you rise through the ranks from there, many ranks within the Space Force are identical to those in the Air Force.

Strange Workplace Etiquette of the 1960s

1960s workplace

Author Nicole Villeneuve

July 18, 2024

Love it?129

The 1960s were a decade of profound social change in the U.S., as movements for civil rights and gender equality gained momentum across the country. While the standard American workplace was not immune to these changes, etiquette on the job still tended to reflect postwar traditionalism and formality. In offices of all kinds, people were expected to dress up and respect their superiors. Women held lower positions that didn’t pay nearly as much as men’s roles, racial diversity was sorely lacking, and behaviors that are now considered unhealthy and unprofessional could be everyday occurrences on the job. Here are some of the more surprising aspects of workplace etiquette during the 1960s.

Smoking at the Office

Today, the thought of people puffing away on cigarettes at their desks seems too bizarre to have ever been the norm. But in the 1960s, approximately 42% of American adults were smokers. The habit was common at just about every workplace, and it was normal to see smoke filling the air and full ashtrays not only in business offices, but also in hospital halls, airplanes, and more. In 1964, the U.S. Surgeon General released its first report on smoking and health, definitively linking cigarette smoke with dangerous health problems. Smoking nonetheless remained ubiquitous in the workplace throughout the 1960s and for decades to follow, until most U.S. workplaces banned the practice in the 1990s and early 2000s.

Imbibing on the Job

As depicted in the hit TV series Mad Men, it was common to see well-stocked bar carts or bottles of spirits tucked into desk drawers in the 1960s. It was also common for executives at big-city advertising agencies and corporate firms to head to nearby bars for what became known as a “three martini lunch.” After a leisurely, booze-soaked break, the execs would put in a little more time at the office before heading back to the bar with co-workers for more cocktails after work.

Credit: Harold M. Lambert/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

Formal Attire

After World War II, many women started to incorporate more leisurely attire, such as pants, into their day-to-day wardrobe. But in the workplace, dresses and skirts — with stockings — were still preferred in the 1960s. Men dressed in suits and ties, but the silhouette became sleeker as bulky, sloped shoulders went out of style. Despite the decade’s fashion formalities, the idea of “casual Friday” also has its roots in the 1960s workplace. In Hawaii, the president of the Hawaiian Fashion Guild encouraged state politicians to wear Hawaiian shirts to work as a way to promote the local garment industry. The “Aloha Friday” trend had taken off in the state by the late 1960s, but trickled into the U.S. mainland more slowly, gaining widespread adoption in the 1990s.

Office Hierarchy

Workplaces in the 1960s adhered to formal hierarchies. There were clear distinctions between management and employees — often physically, with managers in private offices and employees in rooms where desks were placed side by side like a factory line. Communication was direct, usually in person, and people often used titles and surnames when addressing colleagues or superiors. In the early ’60s, cubicles were also introduced to office-based workplaces as a flexible “Action Office” concept designed by Herman Miller. It was a major departure from the traditional office layout, giving employees a more personalized experience.

How Did Humans Survive the Ice Age?

Depiction of ice age people

Author Tony Dunnell

July 11, 2024

Love it?233

Earth has experienced at least five significant ice ages in its history — periods in which colder global temperatures caused glaciers to expand across the planet’s surface. Homo sapiens, which emerged about 300,000 years ago in Africa, survived two such ice ages. The most recent, known as the Last Glacial Period, or simply the “last ice age,” occurred between 120,000 and 11,500 years ago. It reached peak conditions between 24,000 and 21,000 years ago, in a period known as the Last Glacial Maximum, when vast ice sheets covered North America and northern Europe.

At that point, Homo sapiens had already spread around the world. Many of our ancestors, therefore, found themselves in a survival situation during the frigid ice age, along with animals such as brown bears, caribou, and wolves — as well as large animals known as megafauna. These impressive creatures included woolly mammoths, mastodons, and saber-toothed cats — all of which went extinct during the last ice age.

How, then, did humans survive? It was no easy task, for sure, but our ancestors were highly adaptable. Here’s how humans not only managed to survive the last ice age, but also emerged as the most dominant species on Earth.

Weatherproof Shelters

Contrary to the popular image of ice age humans — or “cavemen” — living in deep caves, our ancestors were more likely to have built sturdy rock shelters. While these shelters often made use of natural features, such as a depression in a cliff face, early humans would also have made extensive modifications to further weatherproof their shelters, such as draping large animal hides from overhangs to block out the bitter winds. With a warm fire blazing inside, these shelters provided ample protection from the cold. In the brief but slightly warmer summer months, when hunters moved out onto the open plains, they built dome-shaped huts or tents out of mammoth bones, which were then covered with animal skins.

Warm Clothing

Unsurprisingly, warm clothing was absolutely vital to survival in the ice age. While humans might have once worn rudimentary, loose-fitting animal hides, such clothing would not have been adequate in freezing temperatures. Thankfully, about 30,000 years ago, our ancestors developed what anthropologist Brian Fagan called the most important invention in human history: the needle. Carved out of ivory or bone, with tiny eyes bored through by a fine-pointed flint drill, these ice age needles would be instantly recognizable today. They allowed for the manufacture of tight-fitting clothing that was tailored to the individual and often sewn together in layers, providing effective protection from the cold.

Credit: DEA / G. DAGLI ORTI/ De Agostini via Getty Images

Innovative Tools

Needles weren’t the only innovation that helped humans survive the ice age. As part of their adaptation, Homo sapiens improved upon existing tools, some of which had been used by the Neanderthals, while also creating new innovations in toolmaking and weaponry. One of the most important tools created during the ice age was the burin, a type of rock chisel used to cut grooves and notches into materials such as bones and antlers, allowing for the creation of intricate and lightweight spearheads and harpoon tips. Not only did this mark one of the first instances of detachable and interchangeable technology — known as compound tools — but it was also the first time that tools had been developed exclusively for making other tools.

Credit: Heritage Images/ Hulton Fine Art Collection via Getty Images

Language and Art

Scientists suggest that Homo erectus, an extinct early human species, may have used a primitive form of conversation, or protolanguage, when it walked the Earth some 2 million years ago. Fast-forward to the last ice age, and members of Homo sapiens were most definitely talking among themselves. Language was arguably as important as anything else when it came to surviving the ice age. It allowed humans to share knowledge, whether regarding new technology, edible plants, or animal migrations. And through spoken language, as well as symbolic activities such as rituals, personal adornments, and art (the cave paintings at sites such as Lascaux in France, for example), our ancestors created a shared sense of social identity. This, in turn, allowed them to band together and forge connections beyond their immediate communities. By collaborating, early humans had a far greater chance of surviving the extremes of the ice age — and, ultimately, they came out stronger than ever before.

5 Historical Myths That Won’t Go Away

Stonehenge

Author Timothy Ott

July 11, 2024

Love it?120

Part of the problem with examining history is the reliance on what can be scant documentation of famous figures, events, or civilizations. Whether culled from the writings of a royal scribe or an observer’s journal, these sources are often biased or misinformed, resulting in historical inaccuracies that can persist through the ages.

Thankfully, we live in an age when technology can help correct some of the fallacies, and easy access to information can both dispel misconceptions and foster further understanding of the events of yesteryear. But while some long-held myths have more recently been dismissed — we’re looking at you, Columbus — others continue to hold sway over the populace. Here are five historical myths that stubbornly persist despite the data that debunks them.

Myth: Stonehenge Was Built by Druids

So much about Stonehenge remains a mystery, from how its collection of bluestones were seemingly transported from hundreds of miles away to exactly why this famed monument was built. As such, it would seem appropriate that the druids, themselves a mysterious sect of Celtic priests, were responsible for the formation of what may have been a religious site. However, it’s likely a myth that the druids built Stonehenge. It turns out the idea was fostered by British antiquarians John Aubrey and William Stukeley in the 17th and 18th centuries, leading to a modern-day revival of druidry and the annual gathering of its practitioners at Stonehenge for the summer solstice. While it’s unknown when the original druids first appeared, there are no records of their existence until around the first century BCE. Meanwhile, archaeological dating has shown that Stonehenge was constructed in several stages thousands of years earlier, between 3000 and 1500 BCE, making it highly unlikely that these shadowy shamans were involved.

Myth: Nero Played the Fiddle While Rome Burned

Strictly speaking, the Roman Emperor Nero couldn't possibly have fiddled while a conflagration swept through much of the city in 64 CE, simply because the instrument wasn’t invented for another 1,000 years. Beyond that, there are other problems with the common narrative of Nero being indifferent to or even rejoicing in the suffering of his subjects. The myth largely stems from the writings of Roman historians Tacitus, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio, which describe how the theatrically inclined emperor recited a poem about the fall of Troy as he watched the flames from a safe distance. However, these accounts were all compiled well after the subject’s death, and Tacitus even acknowledges that this event was only alleged to have happened.

Meanwhile, records show that Nero responded to the emergency by providing food and shelter for the homeless and enacting new building codes, which hardly sounds like the acts of a callous tyrant. While the emperor didn't help his reputation by ordering the construction of a lavish palace across a large swath of the destroyed real estate, the characterization of his flippant reaction to the disaster is likely closer to exaggeration than truth.

Credit: Universal History Archive/ Universal Images Group via Getty Images

Myth: The Vikings Wore Horned Helmets

As with many historical myths, we can thank Hollywood for this particular misconception, as popular films helped perpetuate the image of horned-helmet-clad Vikings looting and pillaging their way across Europe. And yet the common depiction of these seafaring Scandinavian troublemakers goes back even further, to the initial staged performances of Richard Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen operas in the late 19th century. In reality, the only extant helmet found in Scandinavia and confirmed to be from the Viking era, which covered the ninth through 11th centuries, has no protuberances. Two other horned helmets, unearthed from a bog in Denmark in 1942, have since been found to predate the Vikings by two millennia, and were more likely used for ceremonial purposes than for protection in combat.

Myth: Magellan Was the First Person to Circumnavigate the World

Ferdinand Magellan indeed changed the course of human history with his quest to find a westward route from Spain to Indonesia's Spice Islands (present-day Maluku Islands). Yet he didn't come close to completing the global odyssey he still gets credit for today. The Portuguese explorer only made it as far as the Philippines, where he was killed in April 1521 after an ill-fated attempt at the forced subjugation of a local tribal chief. Just over 17 months later, the largely forgotten Spanish navigator Juan Sebastián Elcano captained the expedition’s sole remaining ship, with a mere 18 of its original 260 sailors, back to Spain to complete the circumnavigation. And yet, even they may not have been the first to accomplish the task. Some historians believe that honor goes to an enslaved man named Enrique, who was either purchased or captured during Magellan's earlier trip to Malaysia, and possibly returned to his homeland, just 1,200 miles away, after abandoning the European crew in the nearby Philippines. If he indeed made it back to Malaysia, he would have circled the entire globe.

Myth: Enslaved People Built the Egyptian Pyramids

Thanks in large part to the writings of the fifth-century Greek historian Herodotus, and the influential imagery of Hollywood films such as The Ten Commandments, it's been widely accepted that enslaved people undertook the backbreaking task of constructing the Giza pyramids for the ancient pharaohs of Egypt. Yet a series of excavations begun in the late 20th century around the Giza plateau provided ample evidence that the scale of forced labor has been grossly exaggerated. Among the discoveries were the remains of vast quantities of meat and fish in a nearby port city; graffiti revealing nicknames for various labor crews; and the skeletons of workers buried with jars of beer and bread for the afterlife, all of which suggest they were treated as paid workers rather than enslaved labor. That said, questions remain about the social hierarchies that may have driven less privileged individuals to partake in what was unquestionably a difficult job.

Did King Arthur Really Exist?

King Arthur circa 530 CE

Author Kristina Wright

July 11, 2024

Love it?84

According to legend, King Arthur of Camelot was a heroic leader who lived in England from the late fifth century to the early sixth century. Stories of Arthur, his court at Camelot, and his Knights of the Round Table are at the heart of a collection of medieval literature known as the Matter of Britain, which portrays Arthur as a brave and loyal king who led the Britons in battle against Saxon invaders during the sixth century. Though there is a tremendous body of work about King Arthur, historians have debated for centuries whether this medieval figure ever really existed.

Credit: Epics/ Hulton Archive via Getty Images

No Reliable Historic Record of King Arthur Exists

Despite the prevalence of Arthurian tales, particularly ones written from the 12th century on, no contemporary evidence has been found from the period in which King Arthur is said to have lived. The earliest references to Arthur first appeared in Welsh and Breton folklore and poetry, but they were not contemporary to the events they described. “Y Gododdin,” a seventh-century Welsh poem, lists one warrior’s many admirable traits before concluding, “although he was not Arthur.” Scholars suggest this reference points to a legendary warrior named Arthur who was well known in the seventh century, but that doesn’t prove that said hero was a real person.

A sixth-century historical account of Britain by a Welsh monk named Gildas is the only surviving source from Arthur’s time that references a powerful British leader who could plausibly be the hero of legend. In the account, titled De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae (On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain), Gildas attributes the success of the Battle of Mons Badonicus, reportedly fought around 500 CE, to a British commander, but he does not name the conquering hero. The only commander Gildas references by name in his work is Ambrosius Aurelianus, a real Romano-British warrior who fought for the Saxons in the fifth century.

The Line Between Fact and Fiction Is Blurry

Medieval histories often merged fact and fiction, so references to Arthur in historical records aren’t necessarily a confirmation of his existence. It was common practice at the time to embellish true events, which could mean altering names, adding characters, exaggerating a hero’s accomplishments, and even including magical elements to enhance the story. Some Arthurian texts were even labeled as a “history of,” which further blurred the distinction between historical fact and romanticized fiction.

References to Arthur appear in various medieval historical sources, including the ninth-century Historia Brittonum (History of the Britons) and the late-10th-century Annales Cambriae (Annals of Wales). The former, written by the Welsh cleric Nennius, lists 12 battles presumably fought by Arthur, but its historical accuracy is up for debate. Some scholars argue that the battles may be a compilation of various conflicts involving different leaders rather than a single person’s achievements. Both Annales Cambriae and Historia Brittonum mention Arthur’s victory at Mons Badonicus, though their works came centuries after Gildas’ reference to an unnamed commander, and may have been influenced by literary accounts of Arthur.

In 1136, Welsh cleric Geoffrey of Monmouth penned one of the most famous Arthurian texts, Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain). Geoffrey claimed to have traced the history of Britain back to its founding by Trojan exiles and wove a captivating saga of the rulers of Britain from the mythical first king, Brutus of Troy, in 12th century BCE, to the Welsh king Cadwaladr, in the seventh century. Although his tales have helped shape Arthurian legend as we know it today, including fantastical elements such as Merlin the wizard and the magical sword Excalibur, his account is largely dismissed as fictional.

Arthur May Have Come From Celtic Mythology

In the absence of any evidence that Arthur was a real historical figure, some scholars suspect he may have evolved from stories of a Celtic bear god. This theory is supported by the possible origins of the name Arthur, which may be derived from the Celtic artos, meaning “bear.” In Celtic mythology, the bear is a symbol of strength and leadership, qualities often attributed to the legendary king.

Other theories suggest that King Arthur may have been based on several historical figures who lived during the period following the Roman withdrawal from Britain. Arthur may have been inspired by the real Romano-British leaders who fought against Saxon invaders, including Aurelianus and Vortigern, or the character could be a composite of several warlords from that era. None of these identifications has ever been found conclusive, however — although Aurelianus’ nickname was “Bear” because his military tunic was made from a bear pelt, and some theorize the stories of Arthur evolved from Aurelianus.

No Archaeological Evidence of Arthur Has Been Found

On top of the lack of historical record, there is also no definitive archaeological evidence that links any historical figure to the Arthurian tales. Some real historic sites, such as Tintagel Castle in Cornwall, England, where Arthur is said to have been conceived, have been associated with the legend. But while excavations at these sites have uncovered artifacts from the time period that corresponds with the stories of Arthur, no physical proof of his existence has been found. And some places mentioned in Arthurian legend, such as the location of the Battle of Mons Badonicus (also known as Mount Badon), remain unknown, even though contemporary historians believe they were real sites.

The Legend of King Arthur Lives On

Though Arthurian literature continued to expand and thrive throughout the Middle Ages, the themes, events, and characters varied widely from text to text, so there is no single canonical version of Arthur’s story. The stories of King Arthur and his realm experienced a resurgence in popularity in Victorian-era England, adding depth and breadth to the legend. Thanks to countless literary works and adaptations for theater, film, television, and other media, the legend remains familiar to this day — regardless of whether a real King Arthur ever existed.

7 Roman Emperors Everyone Should Know

Author Timothy Ott

Augustus (27 BCE-14 CE)

You may also like

More from our network

How Well Do You Know Your U.S. Geography?

Go Retro With This 1960s Fashion Quiz

6 Tricks Grocery Stores Use To Influence What You Buy

Born Between 1941-1969? Take Advantage of These 10 Benefits

Do You Know What the “P” in “P.M.” Stands For?

Vespasian (69-79 CE)

Trajan (98-117 CE)

Hadrian (117-138 CE)

Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE)

Diocletian (284-305 CE)

Constantine (306-337 CE)

What the New York City Skyline Looked Like 100 Years Ago

Author Mark DeJoy

You may also like

More from our network

How Well Do You Know Your U.S. Geography?

Go Retro With This 1960s Fashion Quiz

6 Tricks Grocery Stores Use To Influence What You Buy

Born Between 1941-1969? Take Advantage of These 10 Benefits

Do You Know What the “P” in “P.M.” Stands For?

What Did an English Earl Actually Do?

Author Kristina Wright

Earls Governed Large Regions of the Kingdom

You may also like

More from our network

How Well Do You Know Your U.S. Geography?

Go Retro With This 1960s Fashion Quiz

6 Tricks Grocery Stores Use To Influence What You Buy

Born Between 1941-1969? Take Advantage of These 10 Benefits

Do You Know What the “P” in “P.M.” Stands For?

Earls Served as Advisers to the King

Medieval Earls Were Also Military Leaders

The Meaning Behind 9 Famous Middle Initials

Author Bennett Kleinman

John D. Rockefeller

You may also like

More from our network

How Well Do You Know Your U.S. Geography?

Go Retro With This 1960s Fashion Quiz

6 Tricks Grocery Stores Use To Influence What You Buy

Born Between 1941-1969? Take Advantage of These 10 Benefits

Do You Know What the “P” in “P.M.” Stands For?

Ulysses S. Grant

Susan B. Anthony

Warren G. Harding

Booker T. Washington

Dwight D. Eisenhower

Cecil B. DeMille

Harry S. Truman

Ursula K. Le Guin

The Secret Service Code Names of 9 U.S. Presidents

Author Bennett Kleinman

Harry S. Truman: “General”

You may also like

More from our network

How Well Do You Know Your U.S. Geography?

Go Retro With This 1960s Fashion Quiz

6 Tricks Grocery Stores Use To Influence What You Buy

Born Between 1941-1969? Take Advantage of These 10 Benefits

Do You Know What the “P” in “P.M.” Stands For?

Dwight D. Eisenhower: “Providence”

John F. Kennedy: “Lancer”

Lyndon B. Johnson: “Volunteer”

Richard Nixon: “Searchlight”

Jimmy Carter: “Deacon”

Ronald Reagan: “Rawhide”

Bill Clinton: “Eagle”

George H.W. Bush: “Timberwolf”

All the U.S. Military Ranks, In Order

Author Bennett Kleinman

Army

You may also like

More from our network

How Well Do You Know Your U.S. Geography?

Go Retro With This 1960s Fashion Quiz