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The Spanish Peso

The most widely accepted theory traces the dollar symbol’s origins to the Spanish peso, which all you pirates out there will know as “pieces of eight.” The Spanish peso was a dominant currency in the Americas during the colonial era, and was accepted as the basic unit of value in colonial America during the late 1700s. (The Mexican peso remained an official legal tender in both the U.S. and Canada until the mid-1800s.)

We know from handwritten manuscripts that merchants and traders often abbreviated the peso as “PS.” As time went on, and as the abbreviation became more widespread, the “S” was often written over the “P,” producing an approximation of the “$” symbol. This is now widely regarded as the most likely origin of the dollar sign.

The “$” symbol first appeared in print around 1800. Printed by Binny & Ronaldson — the first permanent type foundry in the United States — the earliest known use of the symbol occurred in a pamphlet titled “Facts Respecting the Bank of North America.” From there, of course, the dollar symbol went from strength to strength, not only in the United States but also in many other parts of the world. Today, it’s used as a currency symbol in more than 20 countries around the globe, including Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Fiji, and Hong Kong.

5 Forms of U.S. Currency That Are No Longer in Use

Close-up of U.S. currency — Credit: John_Lamb/ iStock

Author Tony Dunnell

December 20, 2024

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The history of currency in the United States offers a fascinating journey through cultural changes, economic innovation, and shifting monetary policies. Between the colonial era and the mid-20th century, numerous forms of currency emerged that served a particular purpose before ultimately being discontinued. These now-defunct currencies reflect the complex social and political landscapes that shaped America’s financial systems, while at the same time telling stories of expansion, war, innovation, and politics.

Here are five forms of U.S. currency that still exist — and in some cases are worth far more than when they were first issued — but are no longer in common use.

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Pine Tree Shilling

In the early 1650s, the Massachusetts Bay Colony was a commercial success. But it had a fundamental problem: a lack of coin currency, which was a major issue for not only the colony but also the wider New England economy. This forced the colonists to rely on bartering, allowing the British to keep more control. So, the authorities in Boston — which, at the time, had existed for only around 25 years — decided to set up a mint. They began striking silver coinage in denominations of 3 pence, 6 pence, and 1 shilling, most of which were stamped with the year of the mint’s foundation, 1652, and a pine tree (although some bore a willow or oak tree). The currency became collectively known as the pine tree shilling, and was generally accepted throughout the Northeast. It remains arguably the most famous coin from America’s colonial period. Today, authentic pine tree shillings are generally worth between $1,500 and $3,000 each.

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Fractional Currency

During the Civil War, widespread hoarding of gold and silver coins created a desperate shortage of small change. To rectify the situation, President Abraham Lincoln signed the Postage Currency Act on July 17, 1862, which introduced fractional currency in the form of “paper coins,” issued in 3-cent, 5-cent, 10-cent, 15-cent, 25-cent, and 50-cent denominations. The small notes were informally known as shinplasters, after the small, square patches of paper that soldiers used as plasters for treating sore legs. Fractional currency went through a number of different issues until production ceased in 1876, when the production and use of coins rebounded.

$500, $1,000, $5,000, and $10,000 Notes

It wasn’t all that long ago that bills far larger than the now-standard $100 were in use in the United States. Currency notes in denominations of $500, $1,000, $5,000, and $10,000 — all of which were last printed in 1945 — were in circulation up until July 14, 1969, when the Department of the Treasury officially discontinued them due to lack of use. And while these notes remain legal tender today, most of them are probably in the hands of private numismatic dealers and collectors. That’s no surprise, as these notes can fetch a pretty price, depending on their age, scarcity, and condition. In 2019, a collection of three of the rarest known U.S. paper bills in existence was estimated at a combined value of around $8 million. The most valuable in the set was a $1,000 bill from 1891 (one of only two known to exist), valued between $2 million and $3 million.

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Gold Certificates

Gold certificates were first issued by the U.S. Treasury in 1865. The certificates, issued in denominations of $10, $20, $50, $100, $500, $1,000, and $10,000, proved ownership of a specific amount of gold — meaning you could deposit gold at the Treasury and receive gold certificates in exchange. They were primarily used for large transactions between banks and government institutions. There was even a $100,000 gold certificate, the highest denomination ever issued by the federal government. Printed in 1934, this hefty note was used as an accounting device between branches of the Federal Reserve and was never circulated publicly. (It was even illegal for a private individual to own a $100,000 certificate.) Then, on April 5, 1933, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt controversially ordered the seizure of the private gold holdings of the American people, and soon after transferred ownership of all monetary gold in the United States to the U.S. Treasury. This prohibition of private gold ownership effectively ended the circulation of gold certificates.

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Hawaii Overprint Notes

During World War II, special currency was printed for use in Hawaii following the attack on Pearl Harbor. With fears that an imminent invasion of Hawaii could follow, the island was placed under martial law and the majority of U.S. dollars were recalled to prevent substantial amounts of money from potentially falling into Japanese hands. The currency was replaced with the Hawaii overprint note, bills designed to be easily identified and declared invalid if the islands were captured by Japanese forces. The bills looked much the same as regular dollar notes, but were overprinted with large “HAWAII” lettering on one side and two smaller overprints on the obverse. After the war, these unique bills were quickly withdrawn from circulation. A recall was issued, but many of the overprint notes were stashed away as souvenirs by soldiers and residents.

5 Essential World War II Novels

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Author Kristina Wright

December 18, 2024

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World War II remains one of the most significant and devastating events in human history; it’s the source of countless stories of heroism, tragedy, and resilience. Historical fiction set during this time captures the war’s profound impact, shedding light on both well-known and lesser-known perspectives. These stories are often rooted in personal experiences and not only provide insight into the horrors of warfare, but also serve as a way to process and reflect on the complexities of conflict, the instinct for survival, and the morality of war.

Early works by authors who lived through this turbulent era helped define modern historical fiction, combining intensely personal narratives with philosophical explorations of the human condition. Many of the works on this list have become essential reading in the historical fiction genre and have influenced generations of both readers and writers. Whether you’re drawn to tales of resistance, survival, or love amid chaos, these five historical fiction books about World War II offer powerful narratives that will transport you back to the 1940s.

The Naked and the Dead by Norman Mailer (1948)

Norman Mailer’s debut novel, The Naked and the Dead, is considered one of the greatest American war novels ever written. Published in 1948 when Mailer was just 25 years old, the book offers an unflinchingly realistic portrayal of a U.S. Army platoon during the campaign to retake the fictional Pacific island of Anopopei during World War II. The story follows an ensemble cast of soldiers led by Lieutenant Hearn, who questions the hierarchy of military life, and General Cummings, a ruthless commander who embodies the authoritarian power structure.

Mailer, an Army veteran who served in the Pacific theater of World War II, depicts the psychological and physical toll of warfare, as well as the complex dynamics between soldiers and their commanding officers. The novel’s gritty realism and exploration of power, fear, and survival have established it as a classic in the genre of war fiction. It was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize for fiction in 1949, and a film adaptation was released in 1958.

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The Caine Mutiny by Herman Wouk (1951)

Herman Wouk’s The Caine Mutiny, which won the Pulitzer Prize in 1952, is a gripping courtroom drama set aboard a U.S. Navy minesweeper in the Pacific. The novel follows the crew’s growing concerns about the mental stability of their captain, Lieutenant Commander Queeg, and the subsequent mutiny that leads to a dramatic trial. Wouk’s personal experience on a destroyer-minesweeper during World War II informs his compelling exploration of leadership, duty, and the moral dilemmas faced by those in command. A film adaptation of the novel was released in 1954, with Humphrey Bogart starring as Queeg.

Following the success of The Caine Mutiny, Wouk went on to write The Winds of War (1971) and its sequel War and Remembrance (1978). These sweeping epics — together nearly 2,000 pages long — follow the Henry family, particularly U.S. Navy officer Victor “Pug” Henry, as they cope with the political and personal aspects of the war, from the attack on Pearl Harbor to the conflict’s final days. Wouk’s attention to historical detail and character dynamics have cemented his place as one of the definitive chroniclers of World War II in fiction.

From Here to Eternity by James Jones (1951)

Winner of the National Book Award for Fiction in 1952, From Here to Eternity offers a raw, unvarnished look at military life in the months leading up to the attack on Pearl Harbor. Set on the Hawaiian island of Oahu, the novel follows a group of soldiers on a U.S. Army base as they experience the harsh realities of military bureaucracy, personal conflicts, and the looming threat of war. At the heart of the story is Private Robert E. Lee Prewitt, a champion boxer and talented bugler who refuses to conform, even as he faces brutal treatment from his superiors. Alongside him is First Sergeant Milton Anthony Warden, a disciplined yet disillusioned soldier who risks his military career when he has an affair with his commanding officer's wife.

Jones, a World War II veteran, brings authenticity and emotional depth to the story as he explores themes of loyalty, authority, and personal freedom, giving readers a stark look at the internal struggles of soldiers and the moral compromises demanded by military life. The novel’s realism made it a literary sensation and led to a critically acclaimed film adaptation in 1953, which won eight Academy Awards including Best Picture.

Catch-22 by Joseph Heller (1961)

Joseph Heller’s Catch-22 is a satirical novel and cultural touchstone that redefined war literature in the 1960s with its dark humor and scathing critique of military bureaucracy. Drawing on his own experience as a U.S. Army Air Force bombardier in World War II, Heller creates a chaotic, nonlinear narrative centered on Captain John Yossarian, a man who is desperate to escape the absurdities of war. Ingrained in popular culture is the infamous “catch-22” rule: A soldier can be grounded if declared insane, but requesting to be discharged is considered proof of sanity, creating a no-win paradox.

Nominated for the National Book Award in 1962, Catch-22 offers sharp commentary on the futility of conflict and the human cost of war. It has captured the attention of readers for decades, earning it a place among the greatest works of 20th-century fiction.

Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut (1969)

Slaughterhouse-Five is an American classic — a groundbreaking work of postmodern literature that blends historical fiction, autobiography, science fiction, and satire in a shocking and thought-provoking meditation on free will, fate, and the randomness of life. Vonnegut tells the story of Billy Pilgrim, an American soldier who survives the firebombing of Dresden during World War II and becomes "unstuck in time," experiencing moments of his life out of sequence.

Drawing heavily from his own experiences as a prisoner of war in Dresden, Vonnegut crafts a compelling novel about the horrors of war and the search for meaning in chaos that continues to resonate. With its unconventional structure and emotional depth, Slaughterhouse-Five established Vonnegut as a literary cult hero and remains his most influential work.

What Were the Earliest Hotels Like?

Maids Head Hotel in Norwich — Credit: Chris Yaxley/ Alamy Stock Photo

Author Timothy Ott

December 17, 2024

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Whether we’re checking into a five-star resort or a shack with a roof and cable TV off the interstate, we all expect a base level of service for a stay at a hotel. Of course, this is a luxury that comes with 21st-century lodging. Amenities such as running water, clean sheets, and free coffee are taken for granted nowadays, but they certainly weren’t the industry standard in the early days of hospitality.

Given that it’s easier to enjoy the view from our comfy modern chairs, let’s take a look at the rise of this form of transitory housing in various parts of the world, and revisit what it was like for guests to experience the earliest hotels.

Caravanserai of the Middle East

As ancient civilizations flourished in the modern-day Middle East, it ignited the spread of trade routes into Asia and Europe, and with that development came the need for lodging to shelter travelers who were on the road for weeks to months at a time.

As described in Elaine Denby’s Grand Hotels: Reality and Illusion, these early shelters populated the regular paths at frequent enough intervals to accommodate travelers, who often covered 15 to 20 miles in a single day. Known by such names as caravanserai, khan, or han, these mud-brick buildings typically provided guests with beds, stables, and a well or cistern for drinking water, although food was not necessarily part of the arrangement.

A more elaborate and still-standing example of caravanserai is the Ribat-i Sharaf in modern-day Iran. Built in the 12th century, this fortified complex boasted an inner and outer courtyard, a mosque, and detailed stucco decoration, rendering it suitable for royals and government officials.

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Roman Mansiones and Tabernae

With their extensive network of roads that blanketed much of Europe, the ancient Romans also produced a system of lodging at regular intervals for travelers. High-ranking officials and well-connected merchants with official government documentation could enjoy a comfortable night's sleep, a full meal, and fresh horses to take for the next leg of the journey at a stone-built inn known as a mansio.

Those who were less fortunate often had to take their chances with the lower-scale tabernae, which presented an array of hazards that included uncomfortable reed-stuffed mattresses, unsanitary kitchens, poor drinking water, and vermin.

Travelers in rural areas, meanwhile, often found themselves bedding down in what were essentially glorified stables. Such remote lodging, with its poorly fastened doors, could leave customers at the mercy of other ill-intentioned guests or an unscrupulous innkeeper.

Asian Post Houses and Ryokan

The caravanserai that dotted the western sections of the Silk Road took on similar forms in the lodgings found nearer to the east end of the trade route, in China. Those in the employ of the Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan enjoyed what tended to be luxurious stays in these dwellings, as documented by Venetian explorer Marco Polo: "Every 25 miles there is a beautiful, palatial post house where the messengers can stay in magnificent beds with silk sheets and every other luxury suitable for a king," he wrote. "There are always 400 well-kept horses ready, which are supplied and fed by nearby towns. There are more than 10,000 such palaces, all beautifully furnished, and more than 200,000 horses in all."

Elsewhere in Asia, a different form of lodging took root. When pilgrimages to Buddhist temples in Japan became popular among the eighth-century aristocracy, the temples were arranged to accommodate guests; this hospitality was said to mark the beginnings of the ryokan, a traditional Japanese inn often built in the vicinity of natural hot spring baths.

Some of the ryokan that emerged from this early period remain popular with modern travelers seeking a respite from their busy urban lives. Dating back to 705 CE, Nishiyama Onsen Keiunkan has been recognized by Guinness World Records as the oldest continuously running hotel in the world. The second-oldest, Houshi Ryokan, has been operated by the same family since opening in 718 CE.

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Inns of Medieval Europe

Along with the traffic of traveling tradesmen, the paths carved out by religious pilgrims prompted the need for places of shelter in medieval Europe. Although many of the hostels and hospices were overseen by benevolent monks, lodgers still had to deal with such discomforts as flea-infested floors and a log in lieu of a pillow.

Other long-standing inns of the region offered accommodations that were literally fit for a king. The Angel and Royal in Grantham, England, was said to have hosted King John in 1213, while its current restaurant was the site of Richard III receiving the Great Seal in 1483. Similarly, the historic Maids Head Hotel in Norwich provided lodging for Cardinal Wolsey in 1519 and for members of Queen Elizabeth I's entourage in 1587.

By the Late Middle Ages, England's larger cities had somewhere in the neighborhood of 10 to 20 inns. A typical inn featured a kitchen, stable, storage rooms, and varying degrees of private and communal sleeping quarters. Their proprietors stood out as prominent figures about town, with many innkeepers also serving in local government posts and as banking agents.

As it became increasingly common for vacationers to travel for pleasure, many older European coaching inns, so named for the coach travelers they received, began adding private sitting rooms and entertainment venues geared toward the longer-staying guests. One such example is the U.K.'s Lion Hotel Shrewsbury, which unveiled an elegant ballroom in the late 18th century.

United States: From Taverns to Modern Luxury

Spawned from the inns that populated Britain, the taverns of North American metropolitan centers took on their own distinct character by the early years of the new republic. Typically featuring six to 10 rooms in nondistinct buildings, these taverns were notorious for filthy conditions and indifferent service, with lodgers often forced to share rooms and even beds with strangers.

However, it wasn't long before the modern hotel emerged from these settings. From its opening in 1794, the City Hotel in New York came equipped with a ballroom, a bar, public parlors, and the largest circulating library in the country. Most important, the 137-room hotel offered its guests a luxury that was largely nonexistent in the downscale taverns: private sleeping rooms.

Boston's Exchange Coffee House upped the ante for extravagance: A seven-story behemoth with more than 200 rooms, the hotel featured a glass-paneled atrium, a ballroom, retail stores, a coffee house, and an exchange floor. Its mammoth dimensions led to its downfall, though, as firemen were unable to reach the 1818 blaze that began on its top floors and spread until the structure was incinerated less than 10 years after it was completed.

The quest to further refine the guest experience continued with the 1829 debut of Boston's 170-room Tremont House, which offered such amenities as indoor plumbing, individually keyed locks, and a bell communication system. While this sort of luxury accommodation was the exception instead of the norm, the widespread acceptance of the term “hotel” over “tavern” by this time demonstrated that there was no going back to the lax standards of the previous century.

When Did We Start Having Parades?

19th-century parade procession — Credit: ilbusca/ iStock

Author Nicole Villeneuve

December 17, 2024

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Parades are a curious phenomenon: We gather en masse to march through a space with music, costumes, and elaborate displays. But even at their most odd, these festive demonstrations also feel universal — most likely because they represent a tradition that spans continents and centuries.

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Before there were parades, there were processions. These were ceremonial or ritualistic events that anthropologists believe predated parades as a way to connect with community — and with the divine. Their roots stretch back to ancient civilizations: In Mesopotamia, as early as 2900 BCE, priests and citizens marched with statues of deities such as the Babylonian god Marduk during the multiday Akitu celebrations for the new year.

The Panathenaic festival, held in Athens to honor the goddess Athena, similarly featured a grand procession to the Acropolis, where offerings and sacrifices were made. These events were spiritual and social, but they were not yet parades as we know them. As author Doug Matthews explains in his book Why We Love Parades: Their History and Enduring Appeal, there is an important difference: A procession has deeper significance behind the occasion, while a parade, though often organized around an occasion, is primarily about the content of the event for the enjoyment of spectators.

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The word “parade” itself comes from a mid-17th-century French term meaning “pompous show.” That’s a fitting definition, given that if one ancient civilization can be credited with originating the modern-day parade, it’s the Romans. Their notorious penchant for spectacle meant processions became grandiose displays of power known as triumphs.

The Roman triumph celebrated military victories; generals were paraded through the streets of Rome in horse-drawn chariots accompanied by soldiers and captives, sometimes acting out battle scenes. While the parades were as much about propaganda as spectacle, they were also celebratory; the streets were filled with music, waving flags, cheering crowds, and a theatricality that set the template for parades to come.

During the Middle Ages, processions for Christian holy days were prominent and began to incorporate theatrical elements including pageantry and dramatized biblical scenes set against movable scenery. This period also saw the emergence of pre-Lent Carnival parades; communal joy was a central fixture, as were the masks, costumes, music, and dancing that laid the groundwork for the diverse and exuberant Carnival parades around the world today.

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By the 18th century, parades had taken on an even more festive form and a now-familiar symbol had become more common: the float. In the U.K., the annual Lord Mayor’s Show became an elaborate parade through the streets of London; some believe the term “float” to have originated here, describing the decorated floating barges that were towed along canals.

Parades began making their way to Americans in this century, too: In the 1760s, with the American colonies still under British rule, Irish soldiers stationed in New York City with the British army began the tradition of marching in St. Patrick’s Day parades. And in 1788, a series of marches through the streets of New York, Philadelphia, and other cities took place to celebrate the newly ratified U.S. Constitution.

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Soon, parades became a staple of American public life. Fourth of July celebrations, observances of George Washington’s birthday, and local milestones around the country — especially in its burgeoning urban centers — brought communities together in a unifying expression of American culture and civic pride. By the turn of the 20th century, parades had become both institutionalized and commercialized. Local governments formalized annual parades for national holidays, while at the same time, businesses recognized parades as powerful marketing opportunities. Nowhere was this better embodied than the Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade, launched in 1924 as a Christmas parade with elaborate floats and live animals that were meant to advertise the New York City store.

Today, some of the biggest parades in the world are not only joyful spectacles, but also platforms for social movements. Since the first Pride marches took place in 1970, they’ve gone on to become massive global celebrations of the LGBTQ+ community, underlining how parades remain a vital piece of cultural expression, tradition, identity, and joy.

How To Throw a Party in the 19th Century

19th-century party — Credit: World History Archive / Alamy Stock Photo

Author Nicole Villeneuve

December 12, 2024

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Throwing a party in the 19th century was an exercise in extremes, ranging from Gilded Age glamour to grassroots get-togethers after a long day in the fields.

At the start of the 19th century, many Americans were part of rural agrarian communities where daily life revolved around farming, homemaking, and survival. In the ensuing years, industrialization and immigration made major impacts on the country. Social and economic divides became more stark, with wealthy families in urban areas enjoying more leisure time and access to luxuries, while working-class and immigrant families often labored long hours in factories, workshops, or on farmlands.

For much of the century, having the time and resources for hosting elaborate parties was a privilege reserved for the upper class, but people of all walks of life enjoyed socializing. Here’s a look at how different groups of Americans partied like it was 1899.

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Elegant Affairs for the Elite

For the wealthiest patrons of the Western world, throwing a party in the 19th century was an elaborate affair designed to show off status. The grand ball was the pinnacle of high-society entertainment, and was often held in a lavish home or rented hall. Balls, like most upper-class parties, were meticulously planned, and guests arrived dressed to impress — and to dance, although there was minimal letting loose with the strict choreography. The evening often began with a polonaise, a stately march that showed off guests’ stunning attire, followed by waltzes and quadrilles.

Whether it was a ball, a formal dinner party, or a garden party, hosts ensured no detail was overlooked. Preparation took weeks, starting with handwritten or engraved invitations. Careful consideration was also given to the guest list. It was important not only that guests be of equal social standing, but also, according to Florence Hartley’s 1872 Ladies’ Book of Etiquette, that they be good conversationalists. Of course, table settings were quite particular, as was the actual act of eating. One 1869 etiquette guide directed dinner party guests to not “take a long, deep breath” after eating, lest you rudely appear fatigued by the whole ordeal.

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A Party for the Rest of Us

Not every 19th-century party consisted of such formalities — middle-class families and rural communities took part in simpler, more communal and free-spirited celebrations. In the mid-1800s, Americans embraced the long-running European tradition of picnic parties. Though they originated as indoor affairs, by the time the tradition made it overseas, these parties took place outdoors and weren’t as wholesome as we might picture today. “Americans saw picnics as a way to let loose and indulge,” author Mary Ellen W. Hearn wrote in Picnicking in the Northeastern United States, 1840-1900. “They even encouraged flirtation, sexual games, and opportunities to indulge in a bit of hanky-panky along with all that food.”

In rural communities, socializing was often tied to the rhythms of domestic or agricultural life. Quilting bees brought women together to stitch quilts while exchanging stories, skills, and of course, gossip. The work culminated in a feast — and possibly an impromptu dance, with others joining in. Husking parties, also known as “frolics,” saw neighbors gathering to husk corn for the winter. Songs would be sung and games played until the work was done, at which point the huskers would share a meal and gather late into the night while the young workers scurried off looking for romance. Dance halls and their festivities were also an integral part of small communities all over the U.S.; some still stand today, testaments to the importance of these lively gatherings.

Immigrants Bring New Customs

Between 1815 and 1915, some 30 million Europeans arrived in the U.S. Over time, their unique customs became the life of the party, leading to what are now among the country’s most deeply established celebratory traditions. Irish immigrants staged one of the first recorded St. Patrick’s Day parades in the U.S. in 1737; by the mid-1800s, they celebrated at homes and in the streets in wild revelry every year.

German immigrants, meanwhile, many of whom settled in the cities of Milwaukee and St. Louis, not only changed every holiday party in the U.S. by introducing Christmas trees to the country, but also revolutionized the way America imbibes. As their lager beer quickly grew in popularity, so too did their beer gardens. These lively hubs drew working folks, young families, and courting couples. They gathered to socialize, enjoy live music, and relax outdoors in the open-air establishments — all while enjoying a brew, of course. While the specifics have evolved, these customs remain at the heart of every good party.

The Best History Podcasts of 2024

Studio microphone for podcasts — Credit: Andrei Kuzmik/ Shutterstock

Author Nicole Villeneuve

December 11, 2024

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History might just be the perfect podcast category. There’s a wealth of tales to tell, people to profile, or mysteries to uncover. And despite a plethora of available podcasts covering almost every historical angle imaginable, there never seems to be a shortage of worthwhile topics — encouraging, yes, but also a bit overwhelming to wade through. Here, we run down some of the best history podcasts from the past year, including a few older favorites that continued to dominate the podcast charts in 2024, and a welcome newcomer that made itself at home uncovering the compelling origins of everyday objects we take for granted.

The Rest Is History

History buffs and curious minds alike will treasure The Rest Is History, which has been running since 2020 and is consistently one of the most popular history podcasts available. The hosts, British historians and authors Tom Holland (no, not the actor) and Dominic Sandbrook, cover a sprawling scope of topics each week: The rise of the Nazis, Cleopatra, “killer fashion,” and a deep dive on how the year 1968 changed America are but a very few examples. The duo balance their academic expertise with warm and playful banter — including the occasional cringeworthy impression (see: Churchill). The topics sometimes reflect current events and can indeed be dense, but Holland and Sandbrook’s warm, conversational approach, as well as the show’s minimal production, make even weighty topics feel approachable and bingeable.

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You’re Dead to Me

If history class had more zingers, it might sound like You’re Dead to Me. Created in 2019 and hosted by British historian and broadcaster Greg Jenner, the podcast also features a comedian and an expert on the subject at hand each episode; together, they explore offbeat topics such as the history of ice cream, the scandalous lives of the Borgias, and the bodybuilding boom of the 19th century. These lesser-known topics are endlessly fascinating and make for excellent trivia night or dinner table fodder. They’re also tackled with wit and unexpected depth; Jenner’s skills shine in both the scripted sections and the off-the-cuff discussions, and while it’s ultimately entertainment, you never leave an episode without a new nugget of wisdom.

You’re Wrong About

In recent years, public figures and historical events have increasingly come under reevaluation. People and places once celebrated or vilified are being reconsidered in light of changing cultural values, new evidence, or evolving perspectives, and the You’re Wrong About podcast, running since 2018, remains an indispensable avenue for reexamining popular culture. Hosted by journalist Sarah Marshall, the show digs into everything from Britney Spears to the history of the American housewife (a popular topic given the #tradwife trends online today), exploring the media-driven narratives that shaped public perception. Marshall’s approach, while often humorous, is also insightful and empathetic. Together with her guests, she fosters thought-provoking and inclusive conversation that serves as a reminder to keep an open mind, a critical eye, and, of course, a sense of humor.

Lore

Humanity’s fascination with the abnormal is timeless, and Lore taps into that curiosity like no other podcast. Hosted by Aaron Mahnke, the long-running show explores the dark corners of history where truth and myth blur. Each episode unravels tales of folklore, urban legends, and chilling true crime that have haunted humanity for centuries. Where else will you find the story of the 19th-century spiritualists who built a “God machine,” or a serious look at haunted historical paintings? The podcast’s narration and subtle, cinematic production let the meticulous research shine, and each episode acts as a sort of campfire story brought to life. After almost 10 years, more than 230 episodes, and television and book adaptations, Lore remains a favorite history podcast for those who love a mix of history, mystery, and a touch of the supernatural.

The Curious History of Your Home

If you’ve ever looked around and wondered how and why the objects we use every day came about, this is the podcast for you. Hosted by social and domestic historian Ruth Goodman, The Curious History of Your Home, which debuted in 2024, explores the unexpected stories of everything from coffee to toilets to laundry in engaging and whimsical vignettes. James’ research and insights aren’t too weighty, but ultimately do reveal how our homes and the objects they house reflect the cultures that built them. The lighthearted approach makes this podcast an easy listen that might just spur you to uncover more hidden histories around your own home.

The Best Historical Movies of 2024

Austin Butler in “The Bikeriders” — Credit: FlixPix/ Alamy Stock Photo

Author Michael Nordine

December 10, 2024

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What’s past is prologue, and that famous phrase certainly holds true when it comes to movies. This year’s most notable historical dramas brought their subjects to life in a way that only movies can, using the unreality of filmmaking to show how our understanding of what’s come before informs the present. Here are five of the best of them.

The Settlers

Another word for “settler” is “colonialist,” and indeed the original Spanish title of Felipe Gálvez’s debut feature is Los colonos. Set in 1901 in Tierra del Fuego, an archipelago divided between Argentina and Chile whose name means “Land of Fire,” the film is nothing if not combustible. Inspired by real events, it ranks among the most brutal Westerns ever made. And yet it’s also strikingly beautiful, with cinematography that literally glows like a small, resilient campfire illuminating an otherwise pitch-black landscape from which anything — friend, foe, man, beast — could emerge. It’s not often that a film set in uncharted land feels so genuinely uncharted.

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The Brutalist

One of the year’s best movies, historical or otherwise, is Brady Corbet’s stunningly ambitious The Brutalist. It plays like a sweeping biopic of its (fictional) protagonist, Hungarian architect and Holocaust survivor László Tóth, whose postwar arrival in America is signaled by the upside-down appearance of the Statue of Liberty in a stunning opening sequence. Adrien Brody plays Tóth in what’s surely the performance of his career — no small feat, considering he’s still the youngest Best Actor winner in history for The Pianist — alongside Felicity Jones, Guy Pearce, Raffey Cassidy, and Stacy Martin. It’s a marvel of a movie, the kind that doesn’t come around often and demands to be seen on the largest screen possible.

Small Things Like These

Cillian Murphy could have done just about anything after his well-deserved Oscar win for Oppenheimer, and it’s notable that he chose to star in and co-produce Small Things Like These. An adaptation of Claire Keegan’s 2021 novel, which won the Orwell Prize and was shortlisted for the Booker Prize, it both lives up to and transcends its humble title. Set in the 1980s but tracing its narrative back decades earlier, Small Things Like These concerns a coal merchant (Murphy) who lives near a school for girls that he gradually realizes is actually a Magdalene laundry — a cruel institution run by the Catholic Church for so-called “fallen women” who were exploited for cheap labor and essentially kept as prisoners. Irish cinema has a long tradition of taking hard, revealing looks at the darkest chapters of the country’s history, and Small Things Like These is no exception.

The Bikeriders

The first question to ask of a new Tom Hardy movie: What strange, compelling voice will the actor affect this time? The second: Is the movie any good? Both are worth finding out for yourself when it comes to The Bikeriders, but rest assured that writer-director Jeff Nichols’ latest film is very much worth seeing. Nichols, the thoughtful filmmaker behind movies such as Take Shelter, Mud, and Loving, charts the rise and fall of a late 1960s motorcycle club called the Vandals (based on the real Outlaws Motorcycle Club), that starts as something fun and ends as something much more sinister. Jodie Comer, Austin Butler (who still sounds like Elvis), and Michael Shannon co-star in the film, which shows the romantic sides of its subject without romanticizing it.

The Promised Land

Not unlike The Settlers, Nikolaj Arcel’s The Promised Land charts the taming of a wild landscape. In this case it’s the barren moorland of Denmark, which Captain Ludvig Kahlen has taken on the quixotic task of cultivating in order to gain a noble title — an effort that some in power would prefer to fail. Mads Mikkelsen plays the gruff Kahlen, who was a real 18th-century military official, with his usual steely charisma. The soil is harsh, but that doesn’t mean nothing worthwhile will grow in it.

A Brief History of Christmas Trees

Decorated Christmas tree — Credit: Lightspring/ Shutterstock

Author Timothy Ott

December 10, 2024

Love it?47

As the subject of numerous carols, a featured attraction for both cavernous department stores and cozy mom-and-pop businesses, and an object of purchase for some 35 million to 50 million American consumers every year, Christmas trees are undoubtedly a focal point of annual Yuletide celebrations. Older than the carols in which they’re celebrated but not nearly as old as the pagan origins of the holiday they support, Christmas trees have been a familiar, comforting sight since childhood for countless people dating back many generations.

But these evergreen conifers didn’t simply emerge as part of holiday celebrations like a fully assembled toy right out of the box. Here’s a look back at how Christmas trees became part of, and then inextricable from, the end-of-year festivities in which they have a starring role.

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Early Evergreen Symbolism

The Christmas tree tradition has its roots in the long, multicultural history of evergreen plants being used to mark the arrival of the winter solstice. From the palm branches that featured in celebrations of the sun god Ra in ancient Egypt to the wreaths that were incorporated into the Roman festivities of Saturnalia, evergreens symbolized the rebirth of life during the cold, dark winter months.

According to Judith Flanders’ Christmas, A Biography, the emergence of trees to commemorate the season were in part inspired by the “paradise plays” that were popular in Europe during the Middle Ages. Staged in observance of the Christian feast day of Adam and Eve on December 24, the plays typically featured an evergreen fir, festooned with apples, as the stand-in for the symbolic tree of life.

Meanwhile, the proliferation of certain legends in 15th-century Germany further strengthened the association of trees with the Christian celebrations of the winter holiday. Among the most popular was the story of St. Boniface, who supposedly chopped down an oak that was towering above the remains of human sacrifice meant for the pagan god Thor, and replaced it with a fir tree that symbolized the eternal truth of Christ.

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Christmas Trees Appear in Germany

As described in Christmas, A Biography, the first documented Christmas tree dates back to at least 1419, when a guild in Freiburg, Germany, decorated an outdoor tree with apples, gingerbread, wafers, and tinsel.

By the 1530s, the first known market for Christmas trees had surfaced in Strasbourg, then part of southwest Germany. With demand apparently threatening the livelihood of local forests, ordinances enacted in the Alsace region first limited households to one small tree at Christmas, before the city of Freiburg attempted to ban the practice altogether. Nevertheless, the popularity of Christmas trees continued to grow in Germany, as illustrated by the appearance of another guild-sponsored tree in the northern city of Brennen in 1570.

Although popular legend holds that the 16th-century reformer Martin Luther was the first to decorate an indoor tree with candles after being inspired by the nighttime stars, researchers nowadays largely believe that story to be apocryphal. Instead, the first decorated indoor tree, its branches filled with wafers, paper roses, apples, and sugar ornaments, was documented in Strasbourg in 1605.

The Christmas tree tradition took on different forms as it spread across the country: Some celebrants followed the custom of impaling an apple on the sharpened tip; others suspended the trees upside-down from the ceiling; and still others erected a wooden pyramid as a symbolic tree.

Distinct names for these seasonal markers also emerged among the differing religious communities that were doing the celebrating. Protestants referred to their tree as Weihnachtsbaum, Tannenbaum, or Lutherbäume, while Catholics had names such as Christbaum, Lichterbaum, and Lebensbaum.

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The Tradition Branches Out

Thanks in part to the marriage of German and English royals, the Christmas tree tradition began spreading to the British Isles by the late 18th century. Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, the wife of England’s King George III, is credited with introducing the ritual to her adopted home country by having a decorated tree at Windsor Castle in 1800.

Around this same time, the Christmas tree was beginning to find a home in the United States. While some of the nation's earliest tree activity was recorded in Georgia, it was the German-immigrant-populated regions of Pennsylvania that served as the epicenter of this growing custom.

Beyond becoming a seasonal fixture in individual households, trees served as a drawing point for communal markets and fundraisers, such as the one advertised for the 1830 Christmas bazaar of the Dorcas Society of York, Pennsylvania. By the 1840s, records noted the migration of holiday trees to the Midwest and Texas.

An 1848 Illustrated London News engraving, featuring Queen Victoria and the German-born Prince Albert celebrating Christmas with their children in front of a large tree, is believed to have boosted the popularity of the Christmas tree among the queen's subjects. Two years later, a nearly identical illustration appeared in the popular American magazine Godey’s Lady’s Book, albeit with the ostentatious display of presents and royal wealth tamped down from the original.

The U.S. Embraces Christmas Trees

As told in Phillip V. Snyder's The Christmas Tree Book, the idea for a tree market was first carried out in the U.S. by upstate New Yorker Mark Carr, who quickly sold out his stock of young firs and spruces from a small strip of sidewalk in Lower Manhattan's Washington Market in 1851. Carr returned with another supply the following year, the brisk sales soon instigating a legion of copycats. By 1880, some 200,000 trees were annually being shipped to merchants at the Washington Market.

As demand began to outweigh supplies and conservation concerns emerged by the turn of the 20th century, a new commercial development helped keep the Christmas tree industry in good health. In 1901, W.V. McGalliard planted 25,000 Norway spruce on his south New Jersey lot to start the nation's first Christmas tree farm. Within six to seven years, the first crop was ready for customers to select on site, with other batches shipped to the nearby state capital of Trenton.

Meanwhile, the first instances of the mammoth tree as a public spectacle were beginning to appear. One of the earliest examples was the 45-foot hemlock that stole the show at the 1884 World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition in New Orleans, Louisiana.

In 1912, the cities of Boston, Massachusetts, and Hartford, Connecticut, narrowly beat out the Big Apple by a half-hour for the co-honors of lighting the nation's first public tree on December 24, 1912. Eleven years later, President Calvin Coolidge lit the first National Christmas Tree on the Ellipse, just south of the White House. And in 1931, the workers building Rockefeller Center in New York City pooled their earnings to buy the first Christmas tree to go up at the location, although the annual tree-lighting ceremony didn’t begin until 1933.

The Artificial Revolution

Artificial Christmas trees have been available in the United States for nearly as long as the first real trees sold at the Washington Market. In 1882, a New York man named August Wengenroth received a patent for his tree with detachable wire branches. Around that time, Germans began producing trees made from dyed green goose feathers.

By the 1950s, industrial brush-making companies such as American Brush Machinery began adapting their products to the artificial tree industry. That decade also saw the rise of aluminum trees, a popular if somewhat dangerous product due to their incompatibility with electric lights, until the denigration of the aluminum variety in 1965's A Charlie Brown Christmas special hastened the end of that fad.

With the addition of the compound polyvinyl chloride (PVC), sturdy plastic brush trees were able to dominate the artificial market in the wake of aluminum's demise. Nowadays, the ease of maintaining an artificial tree outweighs the nostalgic yearning for a traditional live specimen for many celebrants: According to a fall 2023 survey conducted by the American Christmas Tree Association, a whopping 77% of Christmas tree customers planned to display an artificial version in their home that holiday season.

Was St. Nicholas a Real Person?

St. Nicholas of Myra — Feature Image Credit: Adam Ján Figeľ/ Alamy Stock Photo

Author Tony Dunnell

December 10, 2024

Love it?106

The jolly, red-suited Santa Claus who delivers presents on Christmas Eve is a beloved and immediately recognizable figure in much of the world. He is very much a magical, whimsical character, but his origin story has its roots in a real historical person: St. Nicholas of Myra. We know very little of St. Nicholas’ life, but historical evidence does confirm that he was a living, breathing man who lived in the third and fourth centuries CE.

While many of the recorded details about St. Nicholas are quite likely embellished — falling more into the realm of myth than reality — most suggest he lived a life of generosity and service to others. His acts not only helped lay the foundation for the modern Christmas tradition, but also paved the way for the now-iconic figure of Santa Claus, sometimes known as “St. Nick.”

Credit: Heritage Images/ Hulton Archive via Getty Images

The Historical Nicholas

Very little is known about the real-life Nicholas. It’s believed he was born sometime around 280 CE in the Lycian seaport city of Patara, near Myra in modern-day Turkey, which at the time was part of the Roman Empire. It is often said he was born to wealthy Christian parents, and following Jesus’ teachings, he used his entire inheritance to help the needy and sick. While still a young man, he traveled to Palestine and Egypt. Soon after returning to Lycia, he became bishop of Myra.

When the Roman Emperor Diocletian began his persecution of Christians in 303 CE, Nicholas was imprisoned and quite likely tortured. Later, in 325 CE, he may have attended the First Council of Nicaea, a council of Christian bishops convened by the Roman Emperor Constantine I (the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity). Nicholas’ name appears on some, but not all, of the lists of attendees. Being the bishop of Myra, it would make sense that he was in attendance, although perhaps not as one of the more influential participants. According to legend, it was at the Council of Nicaea that Nicholas struck the heretic priest Arius in the face for arguing that Jesus the Son of God was not equal to God the Father.

The exact date of Nicholas’ death is disputed, but it is traditionally considered to be December 6, 343 CE. If correct, St. Nicholas would have been in his 60s or possibly his 70s when he died — a ripe old age at that time.

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