Toothpaste Predated Toothbrushes

Before handheld teeth-cleaning devices became widespread, many ancient civilizations relied on a dental cream made of various ingredients, including the ashes of oxen hooves, myrrh, egg shells, and pumice. This cream was first developed in ancient Egypt sometime before 3000 BCE, and was mixed with water and then rubbed into the teeth to help remove debris. Around 1000 BCE, flavorful ingredients such as herbs and honey were added to the mix by the Persians. Another thousand years after that, the ancient Greeks and Romans improved the cream even further by adding abrasive elements such as crushed bone and oyster shell to really help get rid of stuck-on debris.

The First Hog’s Hair Toothbrush

The world of dental hygiene was forever changed thanks to the ingenuity of ancient China. During the Tang dynasty (618 to 907 CE), coarse hair fibers from the back of a hog’s neck were attached to a handle made of bamboo or bone, creating an early handheld toothbrushing device. Centuries later in 1498, Emperor Hongzhi of the Ming dynasty formally patented this hog’s hair toothbrush. For the next several centuries, artisan toothbrush makers around the world drew inspiration from ancient China and continued to heavily rely on coarse boar’s hair. In fact, toothbrush bristles didn’t see another major change until the middle of the 20th century.

Toothbrushes Go Mainstream in Europe

Boar’s hair toothbrushes didn’t really take off in Western Europe until the 17th century — before that, Europeans often relied on toothpicks, as well as rags rolled in salt or soot, as they believed the coarse substances helped remove debris from teeth. But around the mid-1600s, French dentists began pushing people to take better care of their teeth as they made scientific advances on the topic of dental hygiene. In 1649, an English politician named Ralph Verney, who was living in Paris at the time, was asked by a friend back in England to see if he could get his hands on some French-made “little brushes for making cleane of the teeth,” which were becoming more common throughout the region.

There was a bit of pushback in British society against using toothbrushes, however, as some people worried about the cost and hassle of replacing these devices that wore down over time. Instead, some promoted cheaper alternatives that could be easily crafted at home — the 1741 British text The Compleat Housewife advised wrapping a cloth around your finger and using that to clean your teeth instead, a process that had also been used in ancient Greece and Rome. But these detractors were in the minority, and the production of handheld tools began to expand. By 1780, Englishman William Addis realized how to improve upon the available toothbrushes of the time, which were using animal fibers sourced locally. Addis began importing boar’s hair directly from Siberia and northern China, as the boars from those cold climates had coarser, more durable hair to withstand the elements, which was believed to be more effective at cleaning teeth. Addis founded his namesake company shortly thereafter — which is still in operation today — and began successfully producing toothbrushes on a much larger scale.

How Toothbrushes Took Off in America

As brushing one’s teeth became increasingly popular in Britain, that fervor spread to the British colonies in the Americas. Toothbrushes even caught the eye of future Presidents George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, the latter of whom instructed a London-based colleague to bring him “½ doz. Tooth brushes, the hair neither too strong nor too weak” as well as “½ doz. do. with the strongest hair, such as hog’s bristle.”

It wasn’t until the 19th century, however, that toothbrushes really became popular among everyday Americans, who previously relied on coarse clothes, toothpicks, and other rudimentary methods that were common back in Europe. This was in part due to the rise of a middle class with disposable income to spend on dental care products. The Industrial Revolution also increased commercial production of toothbrushes, which made the product available on a wider scale. On November 7, 1857, dental school graduate H.N. Wadsworth became the first American to successfully patent a toothbrush design, and large-scale production of toothbrushes began throughout the country by the mid-1880s. One of the earliest known American-made toothbrushes was produced by the Florence Manufacturing Company of Massachusetts. Known as the “Pro-phy-lac-tic,” the brush looked quite similar in design to many modern toothbrushes, though coarse animal hair was still used for the bristles.

The First Nylon Toothbrush

On February 24, 1938, the U.S.-based DuPont chemical company changed the world of dental care with the debut of a new toothbrush featuring delicate nylon bristles instead of coarse hog’s hair. This was the first nylon toothbrush in the world, fitting since DuPont invented nylon to begin with. The synthetic bristles were just as effective at cleaning teeth, if not more so, and made using the tool more pleasurable. The first commercial nylon-bristled toothbrush was called Dr. West’s Miracle Tuft, and DuPont maintained exclusive rights to nylon bristles until the 1940s. Once that exclusivity expired, other manufacturers began incorporating the material into their own designs, and nylon bristles eventually became the standard.

Hagia Sophia

The awe-inspiring Hagia Sophia was built under Byzantine Emperor Justinian I between 532 and 537 CE — a remarkably quick construction considering the size of the project. With its vast central basilica, complex system of vaults and semi-domes, and high central dome spanning more than 101 feet in diameter, it was the world’s largest cathedral for nearly a thousand years (until the completion of Seville Cathedral in 1520). Considered one of the greatest examples of Byzantine architecture, Hagia Sophia represents the region’s shifting political and religious affiliations. Built as a Christian church, in later centuries it became a mosque, a museum, and a mosque once again. These changes are reflected in the building’s design, which features minarets and inscriptions from Islam as well as extravagant Christian mosaics. Hagia Sophia was the inspiration for many other Ottoman mosques, and has long been considered a unique architectural masterpiece. 

Machu Picchu

Perched high above the Urubamba River valley in a narrow saddle between two mountain peaks, with tropical cloud forests tumbling down below, Machu Picchu is simply mind-blowing. It’s hard not to look around and think, “How the heck did they build this here?” The site is situated at an elevation of 7,710 feet, and contains about 200 structures spread across zones dedicated to religious, ceremonial, astronomical, and agricultural activities, all surrounded by incredible farming terraces, connected by some 3,000 stone steps. Many mysteries still surround the construction and precise purpose of Machu Picchu. Historians estimate that it was built around 1450 CE and abandoned around 100 years later with the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors. The conquistadors never found Machu Picchu, and it stood for centuries known only to the peasant farmers who lived in the immediate area. It wasn’t until 1911, when American academic and explorer Hiram Bingham rediscovered the site, that the remarkable citadel was brought to the world’s attention. 

The Panama Canal

The idea of building a waterway across the isthmus of Panama to link the Atlantic and Pacific oceans dates back to at least the 1500s, when Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa realized that the two oceans were separated by a 50-mile stretch of land. It wasn’t until 1880, however, that excavations for a canal first began, led by France. Unfortunately, the original nine-year project was devastated by malaria, yellow fever, and other tropical diseases, and ended with bankruptcy and the loss of some 20,000 lives. In 1904, the United States began the project anew. A major sanitation effort was put in place to help minimize disease, and the entire infrastructure was modernized. 

Perhaps most importantly, the project’s chief engineer, John Stevens, convinced President Theodore Roosevelt that the concept of the waterway must be changed from a sea level canal to a lock canal. The original locks (the system has since been expanded), each measuring 110 feet wide by 1,000 feet long, made it possible to lift ships 85 feet above sea level to the artificial Gatún Lake, and then back down to the sea. This incredible feat of engineering radically altered maritime travel and trade. By using the canal to cut across the isthmus, ships could avoid the lengthy trip around Cape Horn in South America, shortening sea voyages by about 8,000 nautical miles. 

The Channel Tunnel 

After six years of construction, the Channel Tunnel opened in May 1994, becoming the only fixed link between the island of Great Britain and the European mainland. The idea of building a tunnel between England and France was not new. French engineer Albert Mathieu had proposed such a project in 1802, his design featuring an artificial island halfway across for changing horses. Back then, the idea simply wasn’t technologically feasible, but by the 1980s, the tunnel project was given the green light. Digging began on both sides of the Channel, and the initial connection was completed in 1991. Three years later, the 31.5-mile tunnel was opened. It actually consists of three tunnels: two for rail traffic and a central tunnel for services and security. The tunnel descends to a depth of 246 feet below the sea bed. It is the third-longest railway tunnel in the world, and with 23.5 miles running under the English Channel, the world's longest undersea tunnel.

The International Space Station

Built between 1998 and 2011, the International Space Station (ISS) is the largest single structure humans ever put into space. It also represents arguably the greatest multinational collaborative construction project in history, involving Europe, the United States, Russia, Canada, and Japan. Elements of the station were built in multiple countries beginning in the late 1980s. In 1998, Russia’s Zarya control module and the U.S.-built Unity connecting node were launched into orbit, where they were connected by American space shuttle astronauts. In 2000, following the installation of the Russian-built habitat module Zvezda, the ISS received its first resident crew. Since then, it has been continuously occupied. Altogether, the space station is larger than a football field and weighs almost 450 tons. Maintaining an orbit with an average altitude of 250 miles, it circles the Earth in about 93 minutes, completing 15.5 orbits per day. The ISS is a truly unique engineering masterpiece, and its sophisticated science laboratory allows us to carry out research that is simply not possible on Earth — paving the way for future missions to Mars and beyond. 

The Lightbulb 

Thomas Edison is often — and incorrectly — given all the credit for inventing the lightbulb. But the lightbulb was actually the result of a process that began before Edison was even born. In 1802, English chemist Humphry Davy used a voltaic pile (invented by Alessandro Volta, after whom the volt is named) to create the first “electric arc lamp” between charcoal electrodes. His rudimentary lamp was too bright and burned out too quickly, but it was nonetheless an important breakthrough. Other scientists worked to refine the lightbulb, but problems with filaments and batteries made these early bulbs impractical for everyday use. In 1860, English physicist Joseph Swan developed a primitive electric light that utilized a filament of carbonized paper in an evacuated glass bulb. Lack of a good vacuum and an adequate electric source ultimately made it inefficient, but it did pave the way for later innovations, including those by Edison. Edison purchased some of his predecessor’s patents, improved upon them, and came up with his own lightbulb, which, while not the first overall, was the first to be commercially viable. 

The Automobile 

One commonly held misconception is that Henry Ford invented the automobile. In reality, the development of the automobile can be traced back to Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot, a French military engineer who, in 1769, built a steam-powered tricycle for hauling artillery. Due to its steam-powered nature, not everyone accepts Cugnot’s invention as the first true auto. Instead, that distinction often goes to vehicles made by two Germans, Karl Friedrich Benz and Gottlieb Daimler, who — working entirely separately — developed their own gasoline-powered automobiles in 1886, in two different German cities. Benz actually drove his three-wheeled vehicle in 1885, and it is regarded as the first practical modern automobile and the first commercially available car in history. As for Henry Ford, his name is forever remembered in auto history for the Model T, which he mass-produced using an innovative moving assembly line, making automobiles available to middle-class Americans.

Monopoly

Since the 1930s, it’s been common knowledge that Charles Darrow invented Monopoly, an idea that both he and the game’s manufacturer, Parker Brothers, freely propagated (it was printed in the instructions for decades). But it’s not quite true. Darrow got the idea for the game — which made him a millionaire — from a left-wing feminist named Elizabeth Magie. Magie created and patented an early version of Monopoly, called The Landlord’s Game, in 1903, about three decades before Darrow. Darrow learned about the game from a couple who had played it in Atlantic City (which is where many of the game’s street names come from) and made a few changes: The original game included a wealth tax, public utilities, and was designed as a protest against the big monopolists of her time. It had two sets of rules, one that allowed players to create monopolies and crush their opponents, and an anti-monopolist version that rewarded all players when wealth was created (the latter demonstrating what Magie believed to be a morally superior path). It’s only in recent years that Magie has started to receive the credit for inventing one of the world’s most popular and iconic board games.  

The iPod

Portable digital audio players have existed since the mid-1990s, but it was Apple’s iPod that revolutionized the industry upon its release in 2001. Yet it wasn’t the engineers at Apple who invented the iPod — not entirely, at least. British inventor Kane Kramer actually developed the technology behind the iPod as far back as 1979. His credit card-sized music player, which looked very similar to the iPod, could store only 3.5 minutes of music, but he was sure the storage capacity would increase over time. Unfortunately for Kramer, internal problems at his company ultimately led to his patent lapsing, at which point the technology became public. Apple later acknowledged Kramer’s involvement in inventing the technology behind the iPod.

Thomas Edison’s New X-Ray Machine Was Almost Used When President McKinley Was Shot

The 1901 Pan-American Exposition was held in Buffalo, New York, and showcased many cutting-edge advancements in science and technology. But it was also the site of tragedy. While greeting the public at the fair, U.S. President William McKinley was shot twice by an anarchist named Leon Czolgosz. The first bullet only grazed McKinley, but the second bullet hit him in the stomach, and the medical team could not locate it. As fate would have it, one of Thomas Edison’s new X-ray machines was on display at the fair. Edison had an assistant bring a machine to the house where McKinley was staying, but the medical team decided the President’s condition was too unstable to undergo the X-ray procedure, and the device was never used. McKinley passed away a week later, leading some to wonder whether Edison’s invention might have saved his life.

Chicago Almost Became Home to a Bigger Eiffel Tower, But Got a Ferris Wheel Instead

Four years after the Eiffel Tower was built for the Paris International Exposition of 1889, a Chicago committee started to plan its own world’s fair, soliciting ideas from U.S. architects that would “out-Eiffel, Eiffel.” Proposals included a 1,500-foot tower made of logs and what would have been the first bungee tower. The architect of the Eiffel Tower, Gustave Eiffel, even offered to build a larger version of his namesake landmark. Instead, the Chicago committee opted for something unique: the world’s first Ferris wheel, built by and named for George Washington Gale Ferris Jr. At 250 feet in diameter, and sitting atop 140-foot-tall towers, the Ferris wheel took riders higher than the crown of the Statue of Liberty. While the original Ferris wheel in Chicago has since been replaced by the Centennial Wheel, visitors from around the world continue to enjoy the architectural legacy of the world’s fair at Navy Pier.

A World’s Fair Helped a Woman Inventor Launch the Modern Dishwasher

In 1883, an American socialite named Josephine Cochrane grew frustrated with the tedious task of washing the fine china she used to entertain guests. She vowed, “If nobody else is going to invent a dishwashing machine, I’ll do it myself.” In 1886, Cochrane received a patent for her dishwashing machine, which could wash and dry up to 240 dishes in two minutes with its innovative use of water pressure. However, Cochrane struggled to sell her invention due to the high cost of manufacture, as well as the sexism of the time; potential investors wanted Cochrane to resign and turn over control of her company to men. The 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago gave her the platform she needed — after publicly demonstrating her machine, Cochrane was awarded the event’s highest prize, for “best mechanical construction, durability, and adaptation to its line of work.” Orders from restaurants and hotels throughout the region skyrocketed, paving the way for the modern dishwasher.

Video Chatting Was Initially a Flop

It’s easy to assume that video chatting is a recent invention that came along with the advent of the internet. But video chat technology has a history going back more than half a century. The public’s first contact with video chat was at the 1964 World’s Fair in New York, where Bell Labs debuted a “picturephone” that enabled fairgoers to make video calls with strangers across the country at California’s Disneyland. Long lines formed and Bell Labs (along with its parent company, AT&T) believed the technology would be a commercial hit, with executives projecting that a million picturephone sets would be sold by 1980. Alas, the device failed to take off, largely due to the high price tag. Bell Labs attempted to roll out various iterations of the picturephone in the following decades, but it wasn’t until the advent of the internet that video chat finally took off.

A Snake Oil Salesman Was a Showstopper

Today, the term “snake oil” signifies fraudulent goods and deceptive marketing, and it all started with a man named Clark Stanley, nicknamed “the Rattlesnake King.” Stanley introduced a “snake oil” product to the American public at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, claiming to have learned about it from Hopi medicine men. As part of a dramatic live demonstration, he cut open a rattlesnake and submerged it in boiling water, skimming off the fat that rose to the surface to create “Stanley’s Snake Oil.” Spectators were wowed, and Stanley’s product became an immediate hit. But while the oil from certain snakes, such as Chinese water snakes, does have medicinal properties, oil from most snakes native to the U.S. does not. What’s more, Stanley’s product was later found by the FDA to not contain any snake oil at all, but rather beef fat, red pepper, and turpentine, forever making snake oil synonymous with fraud.