What Was Earth’s Population Through History?

Illustration of human population

Today, it’s hard to imagine our entire planet populated by fewer people than we currently find in a single major city. And tens of thousands of years ago, it would have been shocking — and quite possibly terrifying — to imagine a world in which humans had built settlements as vast and crowded as those that exist today.

Population growth has, for the most part, been a long and steady process. But while it took most of human history for the population to reach 1 billion, it took only a little more than 200 additional years to hit 8 billion. Because of this rapid growth, the face of our planet and the influence that we’ve had on it have shifted massively in the last few centuries. Where it will all lead is an open question. But one thing is certain: People are currently living longer than ever before, and as things stand, the population will only continue to grow. Here’s a rundown of the world’s population throughout history, from prehistoric times to the present day.

Credit: Illustration courtesy of Madison Hunt

Prehistoric Times

Historians believe that around 55,000 early humans walked the Earth some 1.2 million years ago. By the end of the last ice age — about 20,000 years ago — the population had risen to about 1 million members of Homo sapiens. Over the next 15,000 years, as human societies improved, the population increased more rapidly. By 5000 BCE, the world population was at least 5 million, and some estimates go as high as 20 million. But even that higher number is still less than the present-day populations of cities such as São Paulo, Shanghai, and Tokyo.

Antiquity

Classical antiquity — the period that saw the original Olympic Games and the first of Homer’s epic poems — began in the eighth century BCE. During this time, the global population was an estimated 50 million to 100 million. By 1 CE, the estimated population was at least 170 million. A significant chunk of this population was soon controlled by Rome. The Roman Empire reached its height in 117 CE, comprising all the land from Western Europe to the Middle East, with a total population between 50 million and 90 million people.

Middle Ages

The Middle Ages, or medieval period, lasted from around 500 CE to 1500 CE, from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the beginning of the Renaissance era in Europe. The greatest growth occurred in Europe during the high Middle Ages, when developments in agriculture, the rise of cities, and a decrease in invasions helped the population swell from 35 million to 80 million between 1000 CE and 1347 CE. Then disaster struck. Between 1347 and 1351, the “Black Death” (bubonic plague) ravaged the continent, killing some 20 million people — at least 30% of Europe’s entire population. It took until the 16th century for the population of Western Europe to once again reach pre-1347 levels.

Globally, the worldwide population during the medieval period is estimated to have been at least 190 million in 500 CE, rising to around 425 million by 1500 CE. One of the greatest dents in the global population outside of Europe was caused by the Mongol invasion of China. Beginning in the early 13th century under the command of Genghis Khan, the war led to the deaths of tens of millions of people — at the time, the global population was around 360 million.

Renaissance Era

The Renaissance period in Europe spanned from the 15th century to the early 17th century, and can be seen as the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity in the West. The era saw a demographic shift as European powers colonized much of the Americas. Trade routes and colonies were founded, and nations began to engage in empire building. The worldwide population grew from around 350 million in 1400 to about 545 million in 1600 — a significant amount, but nothing compared to what was to come next.

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution changed nearly every aspect of human society. Previously, birth rates and death rates were both very high, keeping the global human population comparatively stable. But when the Industrial Revolution began around 1760, improvements in technology, agriculture, medicine, and sanitation brought about a massive population growth spurt. In Western Europe, with people living longer and infant mortality on the decline, the population doubled during the 18th century from around 100 million to almost 200 million, and doubled again in the 19th century to roughly 400 million. Globally, a population landmark was reached in 1804 when the number of humans on Earth reached 1 billion for the first time.

Today — and Beyond

It took many thousands of years for the human population to reach 1 billion. But once that figure was reached, the growth rate became mind-boggling — and a source of concern due to the potential overpopulation of our planet. By 1950, the global population reached an estimated 2.5 billion. Today, the number of humans stands at a staggering 8 billion — and is currently growing by more than 200,000 people each day. According to the United Nations, the global population is expected to increase by nearly 2 billion in the next 30 years, and could peak at around 10.4 billion in the mid-2080s.

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The Strangest Mass Hysteria Events in History

Salem witch trials

History is dotted with instances of mass hysteria, a perplexing phenomenon in which large groups of people are struck by the same physical or mental affliction without any apparent explanation, from uncontrollable movement to widespread paranoia. Given the uncertainty as to what causes these curious events, contemporary doctors have remained baffled as to how to prevent or cure them. Though there are some theories, plenty of questions remain, in some cases hundreds of years after the incident took place. Let’s take a closer look at some of history’s strangest instances of mass hysteria, from the Middle Ages to the 20th century.

Dancing Plague of 1518

In 1518, the city of Strasbourg (in modern France) was overcome by a mysterious “dancing plague” that affected some 400 residents. It all began in July of that year, when a woman known as Frau Troffea began spontaneously dancing in the middle of the street. After a week of boogying solo, Troffea was joined by several dozen others who also developed the sudden urge to dance. The group only grew larger throughout the rest of the summer, expanding to several hundred people who danced until they collapsed from exhaustion, or in rare instances, suffered a fatal heart attack. Much as the event began without any explanation, the dancing epidemic a inexplicably started to wane by September, and the city returned to a state of normalcy.

Physicians at the time attributed the dancing ailment to “hot blood,” saying the only cure was for people to dance it out of their system until they no longer felt the urge. Other townsfolk believed they had been cursed by St. Vitus, the patron saint of dance, and were doomed to dance for eternity. But looking back, modern historians have several theories as to what caused the unusual event. Some believe it was induced by a combination of general stress and the side effects of new, untreated diseases such as syphilis. Another theory points to a fungus known as ergot, which is found on bread. If consumed, ergot can manifest itself in victims as spontaneous convulsions that may look like dance moves.

Salem Witch Trials

Between February 1692 and May 1693, more than 200 innocent people were accused of practicing witchcraft in the colonial town of Salem, Massachusetts. These accusations gave way to a mass hysterical event known today as the Salem Witch Trials, which was caused by a combination of xenophobia, religious extremism, and sexism.

The paranoia began at the house of Puritan minister Samuel Parris, whose 9-year-old daughter, Betty, along with her 11-year-old cousin, Abigail, began making unintelligible noises and convulsing. Other girls in town began exhibiting similar symptoms, claiming that it may have had something to do with being pinched and pricked by various residents who were seen to be of ill repute due to discrimination. This led to several women being accused of practicing witchcraft, including a beggar named Sarah Good, an elderly impoverished woman named Sarah Osburn, and an enslaved Indigenous woman named Tituba. While Good and Osburn maintained innocence, Tituba “confessed” to serving the devil. This confession was likely untrue and only made to avoid further punishment, but it emboldened the town to pursue further accusations.

As mass hysteria swept across Salem, dozens of women were brought before panels and tribunals for questioning, and 19 people were executed. The courts were only disbanded after the wife of Governor William Phips was accused of witchcraft, as it was Phips who had established the courts to begin with.

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The Hammersmith Ghost

In December 1803, a great panic struck the community of Hammersmith, a small town just outside London. Multiple locals claimed that a ghost cloaked in a white shroud had been confronting and terrorizing residents, and it was said that the ghostly specter would appear right as the church bell struck one in the morning. Locals believed the spirit was that of a villager who had died by suicide the year before, and that his tortured soul was destined to haunt the town. Residents cowered in fear at the idea of this apparition; there was even one instance where a spooked carriage driver thought he saw the ghost before abandoning his passengers and fleeing on foot. There are other reports of women fainting to death at the sight of the purported ghost, though there was no evidence that the spirit actually existed.

Eventually, some residents of the community got their hysteria in check and determined the ghost was most likely someone in a sheet who was intentionally scaring people as a prank. Others, however, maintained that a spirit was causing havoc from beyond the grave. One such believer was Francis Smith, who one evening mistook bricklayer Thomas Millwood — who wore an all-white outfit for his profession — for the supposed ghost, and shot Millwood dead in the street. Smith went on trial and was convicted of murder, yet he still garnered sympathy from townsfolk who were hysterical with fear. Smith’s sentence was reduced to one year of imprisonment, leading to a series of debates about whether someone could be held liable for a crime based on mistaken beliefs, as Smith committed the crime only after being deluded into believing there was a ghost in the neighborhood.

The Mad Gasser of Mattoon

Mattoon, Illinois, is a small town that was overcome by widespread panic in 1944, when reports of a “Mad Gasser” swept over the community. On September 1, a woman named Aline Kearney was overcome by a “sickening, sweet odor” that resulted in the temporary paralysis of her legs. Kearney’s husband arrived at the house shortly after and claimed to see a tall man wearing dark clothing and a tight-fitting cap standing outside the window, whom he chased until the mysterious man disappeared. Kearney’s condition returned to normal after 30 minutes, but this was just the first of many similar disturbances to come. After word spread of the Kearney incident, other townsfolk claimed they also suffered paralytic symptoms after smelling unusual odors. The panic grew to the point where chemical weapons experts were brought into the community. Armed gangs also began roaming the streets to try to find the “Mad Gasser” and bring them to justice.

There were many theories as to the identity of the mysterious menace, ranging from a chemistry teacher to an escaped Nazi prisoner of war. But in the end no assailant was ever found, and it’s highly unlikely that one ever even existed. Many of the anecdotal gassing incidents were fueled by mass hysteria, as one woman was simply overcome by odors from a spilled bottle of nail polish. It’s also theorized that years of wartime-related stress, combined with reports of chemical weapons being used overseas, added to the overall sense of communal anxiety in Mattoon.

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Tanganyika Laughter Epidemic

Laughter is the best medicine, but it can also be a most perplexing symptom. In 1962, a laughter epidemic struck students at a girls’ boarding school in Tanganyika (now Tanzania). The mysterious giggles first appeared in January in a town called Kashasha, where three students began hysterically laughing from completely out of nowhere. Despite efforts to calm the girls, their perpetual howling was contagious, as dozens of other students also began experiencing laughing fits that lasted anywhere from a few hours to 16 days.

Doctors were unable to explain the phenomenon, and the root cause remains unclear even today. Some historians believe that the laughter was a visceral reaction to living in such a strict cultural environment, but that theory is far from certain. With no idea about how to quell unstoppable laughter, the school had no choice but to temporarily close in March, but that decision only led to more problems. As the girls returned home, they mysteriously “infected” each of their communities with the same insatiable urge to laugh uncontrollably. Laughter spread like wildfire throughout the country, leading to 14 separate school closures and affecting more than 1,000 people. It took roughly two years for the epidemic to completely dissipate, and thankfully, nobody suffered any long-term medical effects during that time.

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How 5 Historical Figures Stayed in Shape

Teddy Roosevelt on a horse

In an era dominated by high-tech home gyms and viral workout videos, the pursuit of physical fitness may seem like a distinctly modern preoccupation. But physical activity has long been an integral part of daily life. From ancient philosophers sculpted by rigorous training to intellectuals who advocated for the importance of diet and exercise as part of a holistic approach to well-being, history is filled with people who placed a premium on their physical fitness.

Here are five renowned historical figures who aren’t typically remembered for their athleticism, but whose commitment to exercise profoundly influenced their lives. The paths they took to stay physically fit varied widely, reflecting the diverse approaches people have taken to fitness throughout history.

Plato (427-348 BCE)

Plato, one of the three ancient Greek philosophers (along with Socrates and Aristotle) attributed with building the philosophical foundation of Western culture, was educated in both mental and physical pursuits. Like other Athenian boys, Plato was trained in a variety of physical activities, including gymnastics, wrestling, archery, boxing, and riding. His given name was Aristocles, but it may have been his broad-shouldered physique that earned him the name Plato, from “platos,” the Greek word for “broad.” Before turning to philosophy, Plato put his physicality to use as a skilled wrestler competing in the Isthmian Games, an event similar to the ancient Greek Olympics. “Lack of activity destroys the condition of every human being,” he wrote, “while movement and methodical physical exercise save it and preserve it.”

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)

Leonardo da Vinci not only is recognized as one of the great artists of the Renaissance era, but also represents the archetype of the multitalented “Renaissance man.” Best known for his paintings, including the enigmatic “Mona Lisa” and the iconic “Last Supper,” Leonardo was fascinated with the human form, an interest that can be found throughout his artistic and scientific work. His belief that the human body represented a microcosm of the universe is reflected in his oft-reproduced “Vitruvian Man” sketches, which depict what he believed to be the ideal male body. In his own lifetime, Leonardo was known for his athleticism and strength, and his superior physical fitness can be attributed to a number of athletic pursuits, including fencing, riding, and swimming.

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

As a pioneer for women’s rights in the late 18th century, Mary Wollstonecraft was concerned about women strengthening their bodies as well as their intellect. She saw physical exercise as a means of empowerment and liberation from societal constraints and believed that physical activity not only strengthened the body but also cultivated mental fortitude and independence. “The woman who strengthens her body and exercises her mind will, by managing her family and practicing various virtues, become the friend, and not the humble dependent on her husband,” she wrote in her 1792 treatise A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Wollstonecraft incorporated rigorous physical activity into her own life, which included taking long walks and horseback riding through the countryside.

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Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919)

After a childhood plagued by severe asthma, President Theodore Roosevelt, known for being an outdoorsman and conservationist, pushed himself physically to maintain his health and build his physical strength and stamina. To that end, he pursued a number of challenging activities, including horseback riding, boxing, climbing, polo, swimming, tennis, and martial arts such as jiujitsu and judo. In fact, Roosevelt’s interest in martial arts led him to become the first American to earn a brown belt in judo. During his years in the White House, Roosevelt even had a boxing ring where he could train or spar with professional boxers, such as John L. Sullivan.

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Harry Houdini (1874-1926)

Harry Houdini’s name is synonymous with magic. The enigmatic illusionist’s awe-inspiring ability to escape from seemingly impossible situations captivated audiences, but behind his feats of illusion was a rigorous dedication to staying in peak physical condition. Before he became a world-famous magician, Houdini transformed himself physically through weight lifting, swimming, running, and boxing. As a magician, his training regimen included cold water plunges as well as exercises to enhance his dexterity, flexibility, strength, and breath control, enabling him to contort his body, navigate confined spaces, and hold his breath for more than three minutes.

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Strange Parenting Etiquette From the Past

Baby cage outside window

Being a parent has been a demanding job since the dawn of humanity. While modern-day parents have access to a plethora of parenting resources and tools across social media, blogs, and podcasts, well-meaning — if not entirely well-informed — figures have offered advice about child-rearing for centuries.

Parenting advice became more widespread throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, when perceptions about childhood began to shift toward the belief that children are entitled to dependence and innocence rather than hard work and responsibilities in their formative years. Most of the advice on taking care of infants and children was morally guided, versus scientifically, and as a result, such advice often sounds strange or even downright alarming by our contemporary standards.

From giving babies alcohol to smearing lard on their skin and denying snacks to older children, here is some of the strangest parenting etiquette from decades past.

A Spoonful of Opium Keeps the Tears Away

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In an era before evidence-based medicine, parents often relied on dubious remedies to treat common childhood ailments. Substances such as Stickney and Poor’s Pure Paregoric syrup and Godfrey’s Cordial were commonly given to babies in the 19th century to relieve gas, soothe teething pain, and treat unexplained fussiness. The secret ingredients? Alcohol and opium.

Mrs. Winslow’s Soothing Syrup was also a popular treatment at the time. The syrup was advertised as a method of pacifying young children, helping with dental hygiene, and alleviating constipation, and it was said to be suitable for babies as young as newborns. While the vibrant marketing featured cheerful imagery of happy babies and mothers, the syrup, a concoction that included morphine and alcohol, resulted in the loss of thousands of children until it was denounced by the American Medical Association in the early 1900s.

These were far from the only bizarre remedies peddled before modern medicine. Many teething treatments contained mercury, even though administering them could result in “pink disease,” which caused discoloration of the skin, sensitivity to light, swelling of the hands and feet, and, in severe cases, neurological symptoms.

Babies Should Be “Aired Out”

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In 1894, alongside advice on bathing and diapering, Dr. Luther Emmett Holt introduced the concept of “airing” infants in his book The Care and Feeding of Children. Fresh air, he believed, would renew and purify the blood and was just as important as feeding.

Holt suggested babies be placed in cribs near an open window starting at 1 month old. Airing could take place in almost any temperature as long as the baby was dressed appropriately and the wind wasn’t blowing in their face. He even advocated for babies napping outside in their carriages, insisting that children who did this were stronger than indoor sleepers. “Appetite is improved, the digestion is better, the cheeks become red, and all signs of health are seen” after airing, according to Holt.

The practice of “airing” babies subsequently gained traction, and in the early 1900s, people even began placing babies in boxes on flat roofs. Baby cages also soon appeared as a way for city-dwelling parents to provide their babies with that all-important fresh air from the comfort of an enclosed frame suspended from a windowsill.

Oil and Salt Baths for Newborns

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Babies are born with a substance known as vernix covering their skin, and while modern medicine suggests leaving it on to protect the delicate newborn skin, advice historically suggested removing it almost immediately by rubbing the baby in something greasy.

“As soon as the [umbilical] cord and the eyes have received the proper attention and the mother has been made comfortable, the baby is given its initial bath of oil,” William S. Sadler and Lena K. Sadler suggested in The Mother and Her Child. “This oil may be lard, olive oil, sweet oil, or liquid vaseline.” The oil was warmed before application and then wiped off with a soft cloth shortly after.

Following this initial oil-based bath, Pye Henry Chavasse suggested babies be bathed every morning and at least partially wiped down every evening. Once the baby reached 2 months of age, Chavasse recommended putting two handfuls of table salt in the baby’s bathwater, which he suggested would “brace and strengthen” the baby.

Toilet Training at 4 Months Old

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Early toilet training was common in the past, with some manuals advising parents to start as soon as just 4 months old — which is, on average, roughly eight months before babies even start walking (and more than one year earlier than average contemporary toilet training recommendations).

This begs the question: Without being able to walk oneself to the toilet, how exactly did a baby learn to use one? According to the Sadlers’ The Mother and Her Child, it was up to the caretaker to bring the toilet to them. “Any mother, caretaker, or nurse … will observe the time carefully and will catch the child on nearly every occasion before an accident occurs,” the advice read. “The nurse or mother places [a] receptacle in her lap and holds the child gently and carefully upon it.”

With this method, babies were expected to be able to control their urination by the time they were 8 or 9 months old. By the age of 1, the Sadlers expected babies to be out of diapers entirely.

Don’t Show Affection

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By the end of the 19th century, children were increasingly viewed as innocent and dependent beings instead of little adults, but it was still uncommon for them to receive much affection from their parents.

In the early 1900s, John B. Watson, an American psychologist known for his role in developing the field of behaviorism, stated that children should not receive “too much mother love.” He argued in 1928’s Psychological Care of Infant and Child that children should be greeted with a handshake in the morning, should not be allowed to sit in a parent’s lap, and should never be hugged or kissed, save for a peck on the forehead at bedtime.

Watson wasn’t alone in his hands-off approach to parenting. In the aforementioned guide The Care and Feeding of Children, Dr. Holt said rocking a baby was not recommended, calling it “a habit easily acquired, but hard to break, and a very useless” tactic for soothing a baby.

The Sadlers felt much the same, advising in The Mother and Her Child that the baby be handled as little as possible lest it become spoiled. “If we sow indulgence we shall reap anger, selfishness, irritability, ‘unbecomingness’ — the spoiled child,” the guide warned. “Turn [the baby] occasionally from side to side, feed it, change it, keep it warm, and let it alone.”

No Lunch, No Snacks

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Not unlike the control they were meant to exert over physical affection and bodily functions, parents in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were advised to maintain complete authority over what their children ate. Meal schedules were firm and snacking was limited. “If he want anything to eat between breakfast and dinner let him have a piece of dry bread,” Chavasse wrote in 1868’s Advice to a Mother on the Management of Her Children. “If he have eaten very heartily at dinner, and, like Oliver Twist, ‘asks for more!’ give him, to satisfy his craving, a piece of dry bread. He will never eat more of that than will do him good.”

Similarly, Cassell’s Household Guide from 1869 told parents not to feed children between meals and to stick to a schedule, saying kids should not be “exposed to the sight of tempting food at unsuitable times.” To this day, experts still espouse the benefits of childhood routines and schedules — even if the guidelines around meal times and snacking habits are a far cry from the restrictive rules of the past.

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The Year 1969, in 5 Facts

Nixon’s televised speech

Back in 1969, the global population was a comfortable 3.6 billion — a long way from today’s 8.1 billion. In the United States, 202 million people (versus some 341 million today) were going about their business. Glue sticks had just been invented and Nutter Butter was first put on sale. “Michael” and “Lisa” were the most popular baby names, the movie Oliver! won Best Picture at the 41st Academy Awards, and the New York Mets provided one of baseball’s greatest upsets when they won the World Series four games to one against the Baltimore Orioles.

That all sounds reasonably relaxing, but don’t let 1969 fool you — it was a transformative and tumultuous year in America. These five facts offer a snapshot of the final 12 months of the decade, from music to politics to a trip to the moon (but, alas, no aliens).

Some 650 Million People Watched the Moon Landing

In July 1969, astronauts Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Michael Collins traveled to space on the first crewed mission to land on the moon. Back on Earth, meanwhile, an estimated 650 million people worldwide — about a fifth of the global population — were glued to their television sets to watch events unfold. The moon landing itself was broadcast live to the world on July 21 as the images were beamed back to Earth. Engineers at three tracking stations — one in the U.S. and two in Australia — busily converted the raw feed into a format compatible with terrestrial broadcasts, providing arguably the most historic TV broadcast in history.

The Beatles’ Final Performance Was the Same Year as Woodstock

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The Beatles played their last official live concert on August 29, 1966, at Candlestick Park in San Francisco, but it wasn’t their final public performance. That came in January 1969, when the Fab Four played their now-iconic rooftop concert on top of Apple Studios in London. The impromptu gig was the last show of their career, and later that year they released their 11th and final studio album, Abbey Road. While one era was coming to an end, across the pond a plethora of bands were either breaking into the big time or solidifying their star status at one of the most famous music festivals in history: Woodstock. More than 400,000 people showed up to the event, many without tickets, and the whole thing looked destined to descend into chaos, especially with a lack of security in place and heavy rainfall that turned the festival site into mud. The audience didn’t seem to mind, however, and they ended up witnessing now-legendary performances from the likes of Jimi Hendrix, The Who, the Grateful Dead, Janis Joplin, and Jefferson Airplane.

Nixon Made His Famous “Silent Majority” Speech About the Vietnam War

By the end of 1969, about 45,000 Americans had been killed in action in Vietnam. Criticism of the war was growing stronger, culminating in the Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam, a massive nationwide demonstration that took place on October 15. With an estimated 2 million participants, it remains one of the largest protests in American history. In response, President Richard Nixon addressed the nation on November 3. He called for national solidarity for the war effort, famously asking the “great silent majority” of the American people for their support as he worked for “peace with honor” in Vietnam. He also outlined a program of “Vietnamization” that would see a gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops and hand over operations to South Vietnamese forces. Despite widespread anti-war feelings, polls taken after the speech found that 77% of the American public was in support of Nixon’s policy in Vietnam. A month after the speech, the U.S. conducted its first draft lottery to determine who would be called up for military service in Vietnam.

The Age of the Jumbo Jet Began With the First Boeing 747 Flight

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On February 9, 1969, the Boeing 747 made its first flight, heralding a new age of the wide-body jet. After almost a year of further testing, the 747 flew its first commercial flight on January 22, 1970, carrying 335 passengers and 20 crew members from New York’s Kennedy Airport to Heathrow Airport in London. The commercial jet opened up the airways to middle-class passengers, and soon airports around the world were adapting and growing in size to accommodate the 747 and the hordes of passengers each flight could carry. Airport boarding lounges, customs and immigration areas, and ground crews all had to be expanded and upgraded to facilitate the dawn of the jumbo jet.

Project Blue Book Left 701 UFO Cases as “Unidentified”

In the 1940s, a spate of UFO sightings across the U.S. — many of which are now considered the archetypes of alien encounters — resulted in a U.S. Air Force investigation called Operation Sign in 1948. This operation expanded and, in 1952, Project Blue Book was born. It went on to become the federal government’s longest-running UFO investigation, with reports compiled on 12,618 UFO sightings. When Project Blue Book came to an end in 1969, the vast majority of these strange events were officially marked as “identified,” and their causes attributed to known astronomical, atmospheric, or artificial (human-made) phenomena. Not everything was neatly cleared away, however, as 701 sightings remained officially “unidentified,” providing plenty of fodder for ufologists and budding Fox Mulders.

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Life in 1960s America, By the Numbers

American couple, 1960s

The 1960s were some of the most significant years in American history. The decade saw the Civil Rights Movement and a rising counterculture that reimagined the shape of the American social fabric. Pop music exploded like never before with the British Invasion led by the Beatles and Rolling Stones, but the ’60s were also an intense era of war and political violence.

The decade’s most monumental moments tend to be widely covered, and the sheer number of historic events during this time almost create the impression that every moment was imbued with turbulence. But while the tumult of the decade played out on the evening news in homes across America, many people were still living normal everyday lives — albeit lives that looked quite different from our modern lifestyle. The following numbers offer a snapshot of day-to-day life in 1960s America.

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42% of Adults Were Smokers

Smoking was still widespread in the middle of the 20th century. The smoking rate in the U.S. reached a peak of 47% of adults (including 50% of doctors!) by the end of 1952. Though cigarette sales declined somewhat in 1953 and 1954 amid growing health concerns, the introduction of the filtered cigarette created a rebound. Through the early years of the 1960s, the smoking rate held steady at 42% of adults. On January 11, 1964, Surgeon General Luther L. Terry published the first report of the Surgeon General’s Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health, a landmark event that brought the link between smoking and disease front and center in the American consciousness. Smoking has been on an overall downward trend ever since: As of 2021, smoking has declined to 11.5% of adults.

The Average Price of a Haircut Was $2.05

In 1966, the national average for the price of a men’s haircut was $1.95 ($19.03 in today’s currency). For women, it was $2.16 ($20.79 today) — unless an extravagant “permanent wave” was desired, which cost an average of $12.15 ($118.57 today). The permanent wave (or “perm”) was a multi-step process to make long-lasting curls, which required additional materials and could take between six to eight hours to complete, hence the premium cost. Chicago was the most expensive city for men to get a haircut in; the average price there was $2.48 ($24.20 today), while Dallas was the least expensive at $1.79 ($17.47 today). But interestingly, Chicago was the cheapest city for women’s haircuts — $2.08 ($20.30 today) for a conventional cut, and $11.27 ($109.98) for the permanent wave. The most expensive city for women was Washington, D.C., at $3.31 and $18.19 ($32.30 and $177.51, respectively).

72% of Adults Were Married

At the beginning of the 1960s, marriage was still a fairly unquestioned rite of passage into adulthood. The median age for brides in 1960 was 20.1, while the median age for grooms was 24.2, and the percentage of adults who were married was a large majority: 72% in 1960. But the decade brought about sweeping social changes in attitudes toward divorce, sexuality, and parenthood, creating a downward trend in marriage that persisted into the 21st century. Data collected in 2023 shows that the current median age at first marriage is 28 for women and 30 for men, and 53% of American adults are married.

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The Average Price for Most Groceries Was Under $1

A single dollar bill had a lot of buying power throughout most of the 20th century. The national average price for most grocery staples in the ’60s was less than a buck: A 5-pound bag of flour was 61 cents; a dozen eggs cost 66 cents; a pound of ground beef (which was broadly referred to as “hamburger” even when not formed into a patty) was 55 cents; and a box of generic corn flakes was 32 cents. In today’s dollars, these prices equate to $5.95, $6.44, $5.37, and $3.12, respectively. With the notable exception of eggs (which have infamously inflated in cost since 2020), these equivalent prices are right in line with what we’d expect to see at a grocery store today.

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A Three-Minute Phone Call to Someone Across the Country Cost $2

Though many aspects of daily life are more expensive today than they were in the past, phone service is one item that’s actually more affordable today than it was in the 1960s. During most of the landline era, phone calls to different regions incurred long-distance charges, based on the duration and distance of the call. In 1960, the cost for a three-minute call from New York to San Francisco was $2.25; it dropped to $1.75 by the end of 1967. With inflation, the $2 average for that three-minute call would be the equivalent of $19.89 today. A lengthier conversation could easily incur enough long-distance charges to surpass the cost of an entire month of cellphone service today.

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75% of Typewriters Sold Were IBM Selectrics

For most of the 20th century, the typewriter was the quintessential office item. In 1946, leading manufacturer IBM set out to improve the typewriter design that had been standard since the late 19th century. IBM engineer Horace “Bud” Beattie developed a mushroom-shaped type element to replace the basket of individual typebars that manual typewriters were equipped with; it solved the problem of typebars jamming if keys were pressed in too rapid succession. Beattie and a team of engineers refined the “mushroom printer” to a spherical shape about the size of a golf ball, which allowed for a pivoting motion that made the page more stable and less prone to small shifts that could result in unwanted slanted text.

In 1954, the team at IBM developed a prototype of the new design. The type sphere was designed to be easily replaceable, allowing for switching out typefaces, thus giving the machine its name: Selectric. The Selectric was capable of printing 186 words per minute and accommodating keystrokes as quick as 20 milliseconds apart with no risk of jamming. It included ergonomic keys, and was available in eight color combinations. It took seven years from the completion of the prototype for the product to go to market, but when the Selectric went on sale on July 31, 1961, the buzz around it was instant. First-year sales hit 80,000, topping projections by 400%. For the rest of the decade and beyond, it became the new standard in offices, comprising 75% of all typewriters sold, and eventually a 94% market share for electric typewriters.

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6 Notorious Outlaws of the Wild West

Buffalo Bill on horseback

The myth of the Wild West is one of the most persistent and influential myths in American culture. From quick-draw gun duels and cowboy hats to notorious outlaws such as Jesse James and Billy the Kid, the Old West is full of legends and lore, many of them popularized by dime novels and, later, Western movies. Sorting truth from fiction can be a tricky process when it comes to the American frontier. Here are six facts about some of the most infamous outlaws from the Wild West.

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Billy the Kid Was Just 21 Years Old When He Died

Henry McCarty, alias William H. Bonney, and best known as Billy the Kid, was only 21 years old when he was killed by Sheriff Pat Garrett in 1881. McCarty packed a lot into his short and violent life. He was orphaned at 15, committed his first crime shortly after, joined a band of rustlers, and quickly became involved in the brutal Lincoln County War between rival factions, which featured famous names from the Old West, such as Sheriff William J. Brady and John Chisum. Despite his early demise, Billy the Kid became one of the most notorious gunfighters of the American West. According to his own count, he killed 21 men, although the actual number is probably fewer than 10.

Jesse James Was Shot in the Chest Twice Before He Was Even 18

Jesse James was an outlaw, guerrilla fighter, and leader of the famous James-Younger Gang that pulled off a series of daring and often vicious robberies of banks, trains, and stagecoaches. He was a notorious celebrity during his lifetime, and became one of the most legendary figures of the Wild West. Things could have been a lot different, however, as James was lucky to have made it out of his teens alive. Before he was even 18, he had been shot twice in the chest. The first shooting happened in 1864 during the American Civil War, when James was fighting alongside a group of pro-Confederate guerrillas known as Quantrill's Raiders. Despite the chest wound, James was ready to ride again in a matter of weeks — but he carried the bullet in his body for the rest of his life. The following year, James was once again shot in the chest, this time while trying to surrender to a Union cavalry patrol. It was a serious wound, but he was slowly nursed back to health by his cousin Zee Mimms, whom he married nine years later.

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Butch Cassidy Had a Strong Aversion to Killing

All humans should have an aversion to killing others, but for the leader of a gang of criminal outlaws in the Wild West, it was quite unique. For all his notoriety, it’s possible that Butch Cassidy never killed a soul. He was known as something of a gentleman who abstained from actually using his gun, and he tried to keep his gang, the Wild Bunch, from unnecessary violence during robberies. That said, gang members such as Kid Curry, George Curry, and Will Carver certainly did claim their fair share of victims. Butch, however, tried his best to keep people safe. According to Richard Patterson, author of Butch Cassidy: A Biography, “The closest Butch ever came to harming a robbery victim was when he used explosives to force his way into an express car.”

The Sundance Kid Took His Name From the Town Where He Was Arrested

Harry Alonzo Longabaugh was arrested only once during his lifetime, but the arrest gave rise to one of the most famous names in the history of the Wild West: the Sundance Kid. Longabaugh left home when he was just 15 years old. A couple of years later, in 1887, he stole a gun, a horse, and a saddle from a cowboy while traveling across Wyoming. He was captured and arrested in Miles City, Montana, and sentenced to 18 months in the Sundance, Wyoming, jail. While incarcerated, he adopted the nickname “the Sundance Kid.” Upon his release in 1889, he tried to make an honest life for himself as a cowboy, but it didn’t go as planned. He soon became an integral part of the Wild Bunch, and was known as the gang’s fastest gunslinger — although it’s possible he never killed anyone during the gang’s various heists and robberies.

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Buffalo Bill Was a Vocal Supporter of Women’s Rights

William “Buffalo Bill” Cody was one of the most colorful figures of the Old West. A buffalo hunter, U.S. Army scout, Pony Express rider, showman, actor, and all-around celebrity, he helped create the myth of the American West with his Wild West show, which made him one of the world’s first global celebrities. Having spent years in the company of famed frontier women such as Annie Oakley and Calamity Jane, Buffalo Bill became a strong supporter of the rights of women. When asked by a reporter if he supported women’s suffrage, his response was unequivocal: “I do. Set that down in great big black type that Buffalo Bill favors woman suffrage… If a woman can do the same work that a man can do and do it just as well, she should have the same pay.” It was a bold response for its day, especially coming from a hardened frontiersman.

Belle Starr Was Dubbed the "Bandit Queen"

It’s certainly true that Belle Starr associated with a rogue’s gallery of Wild West figures, including Frank James and Jesse James. It’s also true that she was a crack shot, rode sidesaddle while dressed in a black velvet riding habit, carried two pistols, and had cartridge belts strung across her hips. It is highly unlikely, however, that Starr was the criminal mastermind of a gang that preyed on travelers, ranchers, and cowboys, as the myth surrounding her might suggest. It was only a few months after her death in 1889 that a purported biography, Bella Starr, the Bandit Queen; or, The Female Jesse James, was published by the king of dime novels, Richard K. Knox. Supposedly written by Starr, it was most likely a fabrication, and it helped cement the myth surrounding this Old West outlaw.

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Robert E. Lee & George Washington

Some family trees seem primed for the history books, from the Medicis and Habsburgs to the Rockefellers and Kennedys. These historical relations prove that family does indeed matter. Take for instance the two father-son duos that became U.S. Presidents: John Adams and John Quincy Adams, and George H.W. Bush and George W. Bush. There’s also Queen Victoria of England’s many grandchildren to consider. These famous cousins — among them King George V of Britain, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, and Tsar Nicholas II of Russia (by marriage to Victoria’s granddaughter Alexandra) — went on to rule much of Europe.

Other famous family connections aren’t as obvious, such as the relationship between the real-life inspiration for Dracula and Queen Elizabeth II, or the distant connection between two trailblazing women, Amelia Earhart and Laura Ingalls Wilder. Here are five of the most surprising family ties in history.

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Queen Elizabeth II and Dracula (Vlad the Impaler)

One of Europe’s most mild-tempered monarchs was distantly related to none other than Vlad III, more commonly known as Vlad the Impaler, a ruthless 15th-century Romanian prince who likely inspired Bram Stoker’s Dracula. The relation comes from Queen Elizabeth II’s grandmother Mary of Teck (a princess from Germany’s Württemberg dynasty), who was the wife of England’s King George V. Mary of Teck was a descendant of the merciless Romanian ruler, who had a reputation for executing many of his subjects. The surprising connection between Vlad III and the British royal family has also been acknowledged by Queen Elizabeth II’s son King Charles III, who owns a home in Transylvania (where Vlad once ruled) and is involved in conservation efforts to save the region’s forests.

Robert E. Lee and George Washington

These two Americans were born in Virginia’s Westmoreland County 75 years apart (in 1732 and 1807, respectively), and served as senior generals in two of America’s most influential wars — the Revolutionary War and Civil War. Confederate General Robert E. Lee married Mary Anna Randolph Custis, the daughter of Martha Washington’s grandson (from her first marriage). This means he was also related, by marriage, to the first President of the United States, George Washington. And the unlikely connection between the two figures doesn’t stop there. After the Civil War, Lee became president of Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia, which was named after both men.

Amelia Earhart and Laura Ingalls Wilder

Aviation pioneer Amelia Earhart and acclaimed author Laura Ingalls Wilder are both renowned figures of the 20th century. They’re also distant relatives. Amelia Earhart is remembered as the first female pilot to complete a solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean. Further proving that adventure runs in her bloodline, Earhart is a descendant of Mayflower passenger Richard Warren, and Wilder is descended from the same man. Though the relation is distant (possibly eighth cousins once removed), there are some undeniable similarities between the two women. Both are from Kansas, the setting of part of Wilder’s most famous book, Little House on the Prairie, and Wilder published her first book, Little House in the Big Woods, in 1932, the same year that Earhart made her famous transatlantic flight.

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Queen Elizabeth I and Mary, Queen of Scots

Two of the most famous female monarchs in history were first cousins once removed — despite the fact that they never met, and one ordered to have the other executed. Mary, Queen of Scots, was the daughter of King James V of Scotland and his French wife, Mary of Guise. Her great-uncle was King Henry VIII of England, the father of Queen Elizabeth I (whose mother was Anne Boleyn). Mary and Elizabeth shared the same royal grandparents, King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York, but the cousins were forced to be enemies due to years of violent wars over the English and Scottish thrones. After decades of keeping Mary imprisoned for fear that she would overtake England, Elizabeth ordered the execution of her cousin at Fotheringhay Castle in 1587.

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Presidents James Madison and Zachary Taylor

The fourth President of the United States, James Madison, and the 12th President, Zachary Taylor, were second cousins. They share a great-grandfather, Colonel James Taylor of Virginia. The two politicians were alive at the same time and were known to correspond occasionally. Madison, one of the Founding Fathers, created the framework for the U.S. Constitution and also had a hand in initiating the War of 1812 against Great Britain. Taylor was a member of the Whig Party and died 16 months into office in 1850. He was a soldier in the Confederate Army during the Civil War and later became one of the top generals in the Mexican-American War. In 1849, while serving as President, Taylor held a funeral in Washington, D.C., to honor his late cousin’s wife, Dolley Madison.

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Conquistadors Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro

Francisco Pizarro and Hernán Cortés were 16th-century Spanish conquistadors known for colonizing much of Peru and Mexico, respectively. They were also distant cousins. The family connection was through Cortés’ maternal grandmother, Leonor Pizarro, who was related to Pizarro’s ancestors. The duo didn’t work together but traveled to Central and South America around the same time. Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire and founded the city of Lima, Peru, while Cortés overthrew the Aztec Empire and took control of Mexico for the Spanish crown. Pizarro was killed in his palace in Lima in 1541 by rival conquistador Diego de Almagro. Cortés wished to return to Mexico before his death, but he died in 1547 in Seville, Spain, disgraced after being accused of poisoning the colonial governor, Luis Ponce de León.

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Writers Mary Wollstonecraft and Mary Shelley

This talented mother-daughter duo is credited with writing some of the most celebrated works in English literature, though their styles and subjects are very different. Mary Wollstonecraft was an early feminist who penned 1792’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, a scathing review of gender inequalities, which argued that young girls should receive the same education as boys. It is among the first prominent feminist works, and Wollstonecraft is regarded as one of the founders of feminist philosophy. Her daughter, who was also named Mary Wollstonecraft and became Mary Shelley upon her marriage to poet Percy Shelley, became a famous writer in her own right. But Shelley took a different path than her mother, gravitating toward fiction. She published her most famous novel, Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, in 1818. Like her mother, Shelley was considered a trailblazer in her writing discipline, and Frankenstein is regarded as one of the first science fiction novels.

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Surprising Dating Etiquette From the 1950s

Couple sharing a soda pop

The world of dating has undergone significant changes throughout history, from arranged couplings in ancient Egypt to medieval courtship to the modern-day use of technology to find a partner. In the 1950s, dating was governed by a set of traditions and rules that reflected a postwar society that emphasized stability and conformity, and was largely influenced by the era’s adherence to traditional gender roles. Men were expected to take the lead, covering the bills and demonstrating chivalry, while women were held to standards of modesty and femininity.

Though they may feel antiquated compared to more recent moves toward gender equality, independence, and a rejection of rigid cultural norms, the conventions that defined dating in the ’50s are fascinating to look back on. Here are some of the rules that defined dating etiquette in the 1950s.

Women Didn’t Order for Themselves

The dynamics of a dinner date were markedly different in the 1950s. In a recovered ’50s article from British magazine Woman’s Own, a guide titled “How To Behave in a Restaurant” outlined a number of rules that applied to all male-female relationships, “whether he is your father, brother or boyfriend.” Women were expected to be demure and reserved, telling their male counterparts — the protectors and providers — what they wanted and allowing the man to place the order with the wait staff on their behalf.

Going out for dinner, while it did happen, wasn’t the default date at the time, especially for younger people: Group dates at sporting events, dances, or movies were the preferred way to get acquainted without spending too much time in private or spending too much money.

Men Were Expected To Pick Up the Check

Given various advancements in gender and socioeconomic equality throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, it’s no longer assumed that a man will pay for everything on a date. And while some old-fashioned opinions on the matter linger today, in the 1950s, it wasn’t even a discussion — the man was expected to foot the bill.

Men were seen as the primary breadwinners, as far fewer women were employed outside the home. The act of paying for a date symbolized their role as providers and proved their financial stability, and it was considered the gentlemanly thing to do. In her 1989 dating history book From Front Porch to Back Seat: Courtship in 20th-Century America, author Beth L. Bailey concluded that for young girls at the time, a date “was not the event, was not the companionship, was not even being seen with the boy. A date meant being paid for.”

Family Approval Was of the Utmost Importance

In modern dating, seeking approval from friends and family doesn’t usually happen until things begin to transition from the “casual” stage to the “exclusive” stage. But 1950s dating was less of a private affair; it was a social event that often involved spending time with friends, and, most importantly, introducing a date to the girl's family.
Familial approval was imperative at the time; as Marion S. Barclay's 1950s Teen Guide to Homemakingstated, “It is a good idea to have your family meet and approve of the people you know.” The guide also stated that a potential date should be “punctual,” typically coming to the home and ringing the doorbell before departing on a date. Consistent with the etiquette of the time, this common ritual added a layer of formality to dating — one that contrasts sharply with contemporary practices.

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Women Were Discouraged From Eating Certain Foods

The arbitrary gendered ideals men and women were expected to uphold during 1950s courtship extended even to what women should and shouldn’t eat. If a date took place at a restaurant, women were encouraged to eat foods that wouldn’t make a scene.

"Fruits cause some embarrassment in restaurants,” read a ’50s dating guide from Woman's Own. “Cherries should be put in the mouth whole, and the stones carefully placed on to a spoon. Plums and other large fruits with stones should be dissected in the dish and the stone placed at the side."

Other potentially problematic foods, such as celery and cheese, could be eaten by hand as long as they were cut into small pieces first. These prescriptive recommendations reflected the broader cultural idea of a refined woman and served to reinforce the gender norms that characterized the era.

“Going Steady” Was the Ultimate Goal

“Going steady” was a hallmark of 1950s dating. This term meant that a couple had agreed to date each other exclusively, taking a major step toward a more serious relationship — often with the intent to marry. Couples abided by specific rituals to symbolize their commitment, often exchanging class rings or letterman jackets if of school or college age.

Despite the era’s formalities, the concept of going steady wasn’t exactly beloved by all: Parents often worried their teenagers weren’t dating around enough and were settling down too quickly by committing to one person exclusively. They also feared that going steady would cause teenagers to become physically intimate more quickly than if they were going on one-off casual dates. As average marriage ages gradually rose and attitudes toward sex and dating shifted throughout the 1960s and 1970s, “going steady,” like many of the decade’s dating rules, began to fall out of favor.

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5 Historical Coincidences That Blow Our Minds

Abe Lincoln and JFK

Call coincidence what you’d like: luck, karma, fate, or just random happenstance. In any case, when similar events occur, it’s fascinating and, sometimes, downright eerie. Some coincidences have so many layers that they take on a second role in the form of conspiracy theory or prophecy. Coincidences, by nature, require zero planning; all we need to do is wait for them to happen. Here’s a look back at five strange coincidences throughout history.

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John Adams and Thomas Jefferson Died on the Exact Same Day

It’s unlikely enough that two of America’s Founding Fathers would die on the very same day, but this story gets even stranger. First, these two political rivals died within hours of each other. Even weirder? The date of their passing was July 4, 1826 — 50 years to the day after the Declaration of Independence was adopted. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson weren’t the same age when they died, though — Adams was 90 and Jefferson was 83. There are multiple theories on why this happened, and sheer coincidence is certainly one. To add another eerie layer, founding father James Monroe also died on the Fourth of July, five years later.

Halley's Comet Marked Mark Twain’s Birth and Death

Some coincidences have an interstellar twist. American author and humorist Mark Twain was born on November 30, 1835, the same year Halley’s comet passed within sight of the Earth during its 76-year journey around the sun. Twain, who was a unique figure in his own right, was aware of this fact and found it amusing to hitch his wagon to the rare cosmic occurrence. As he wrote in 1909, "I came in with Halley's comet in 1835. It is coming again next year, and I expect to go out with it. It will be the greatest disappointment of my life if I don't go out with Halley's comet. The Almighty said, no doubt: 'Now here are these two unaccountable freaks; they came in together, they must go out together.'" Twain’s wish came to fruition: He passed away on April 21, 1910, as Halley’s comet was passing Earth.

A Man Was Hit by a Baby Falling Out of a Building — Twice

In 1937, Joseph Figlock, a public works street sweeper, was cleaning up an alley in midtown Detroit when an infant plummeted from a fourth-story window and landed on Figlock’s head. Miraculously, the baby survived. While working less than a year later, Figlock was struck from above by another baby that fell from another fourth-floor window. Once more, Figlock’s head saved the life of the infant in peril. Figlock himself was uninjured in both incidents.

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One Man Hosted the Beginning and End of the Civil War

Behold the peculiar story of Wilmer McLean, who has the distinction of witnessing both the first land battle of the Civil War in 1861 and General Robert E. Lee’s surrender to General Ulysses S. Grant in 1865, which effectively ended the conflict. At the start of the war, McLean’s home in Manassas, Virginia, was commandeered as the headquarters of Confederate General P.G.T. Beauregard. The home took damage from Union shelling, and McLean moved his family 100 miles south to avoid the violence of war. Ironically, the family’s new home was in the small town of Appomattox Court House in Virginia, the site of Lee’s surrender. Grant and Lee spoke for about a half-hour at the McLean home before Lee signed the surrender document. McLean is said to have later remarked, “The war began in my front yard and ended in my front parlor.”

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Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy are widely considered two of the greatest Presidents in U.S. history, and the coincidences surrounding their assassinations further link the two leaders. In fact, books have been written about them, and members of Congress have even discussed the topic. Both Presidents were killed on a Friday with their wives by their sides. Both were succeeded by men whose last name was Johnson (Andrew Johnson and Lyndon B. Johnson). There are also some parallels in the assassins: John Wilkes Booth shot Lincoln in a theater and was caught in a warehouse; Lee Harvey Oswald shot Kennedy from a window in a book warehouse and was apprehended in a movie theater. What’s more, both Booth and Oswald were themselves killed before they could face justice. Not everyone agrees as to whether these similarities have a deeper meaning or no meaning at all, but at the end of the day, the sheer number of coincidences is quite surprising.

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