Classical Indian Dances

In Central India, the discovery of what appears to be dancing figures amid the Mesolithic-era cave paintings of the Bhimbetka rock shelters underscores the long history of dance on the subcontinent. While it's unknown what particular moves the artist was documenting, the survival of the Naṭyashastra, a Sanskrit treatise on art that may date back to at least the third century BCE, offers better insight on early Indian dances.

Spawned in Southern India, Bharatanatyam was originally a Hindu temple dance performed by solo women. Broken down into the divisions of nritta (technical dance), nritya (expressive dance), and natya (storytelling), Bharatanatyam is characterized by squatting legs and counter-rhythm footwork, its performances lasting up to two hours.

From the eastern part of the country, Odissi also originated as a temple dance performed by women. Compared to Bharatanatyam, its movements are generally slower and subtler, and feature more of the elaborate hand gestures known as mudras.

Kathak developed among nomadic storytellers of North India, so this dance is also strongly built around narrative principles. Not limited to either gender, performers showcase balance and grace with an upright posture and techniques that include chakkars (spins), tatkar (foot strikes), and paltas (patterns). Unlike the country’s other native dances, which date back more than 2,000 years, Kathak came into its modern form by way of combined Hindu and Muslim influences.

Hula, Dragon Dance, and Siva Samoa

In Hawaii, residents have been performing the hula for centuries. This world-famous dance, which involves the swaying of hips and corresponding wavelike arm movements, comes with an array of backstories that tie its roots to differing regions and mythological figures. While such folklore makes hula’s origins nearly impossible to pinpoint, The Encyclopedia of World Folk Dance estimates the dance dates back to around 300 CE.

The encyclopedia also points to a similar dance from a neighboring geographical region with even earlier beginnings. The Siva Samoa, introduced by the Lapita people around 800 BCE, is perhaps the oldest dance of the Polynesian islands. Mainly performed by women at social gatherings, the Siva Samoa incorporates side-to-side swaying, graceful arm movements, and facial expressions to relay the emotions of its performer.

From China, the dragon dance has endured as a tradition of Chinese New Year since the Han dynasty in the third century BCE. Initially performed as a means to worship ancestors and pray for rain, this good luck dance requires the use of multiple performers to coordinate the swirling and sweeping motions of a multipart dragon puppet to the rhythms of cymbals, gongs, and a drum.

Dabke and Belly Dancing

Considering Mesopotamia in the modern-day Middle East is known as the “cradle of civilization,” it follows that some of the world’s oldest dances were nurtured in this region. One such dance is the dabke, or dabkeh, which, according to The Encyclopedia of World Folk Dance, can be traced back to the Canaanites or Phoenicians around 2000 BCE. 

Performed by a group of people in a line or circle, the dabke is an energetic dance marked by stomping, kicking, and twirling items such as handkerchiefs. While the dabke has increasingly assumed the status of a protest dance in recent years, it remains a means of celebration at festivals and weddings across Palestine, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon.

Like the hula, the belly dance is a widely recognized performative art with no consensus origin story. One starting point can be found in the Indus Valley in 3000 BCE, where midwives helped prepare expectant mothers with abdominal exercises. Migrating to the Middle East and North Africa, belly dancing took on differing names and variations of the torso-focused thrusting and shaking that distinguished it from other dances. Belly dancing has endured as a highly developed form of expression, and is often credited as the oldest known dance in the world.

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• Where Did the Heart Symbol Come From?

The Symbol Is Found in Nature

In geometric terms, the heart shape is known as a cardioid, and forms resembling it can be found throughout the natural world. In fact, one of the most compelling theories about the origin of the heart symbol points to ancient agriculture and the symbolism of plants, rather than human anatomy.

In the ancient city of Cyrene (modern-day Libya), a species of giant fennel known as silphium was so highly valued that it drove the economy of the region. Its uses were wide-ranging: Silphium was a prized seasoning, a powerful medicine, and, most notably, a natural contraceptive. It was so essential to life and love in the ancient world that it was stamped onto Cyrenian coins.

The plant’s seedpod, in particular, bore a strong resemblance to the heart symbol we recognize today — a smooth, symmetrical form tapering to a point. Because silphium was closely associated with love, sexuality, and fertility, some historians believe the shape of its seedpod may have directly influenced the development of the symbolic heart.

Other plants have also echoed the heart’s curves. Ivy leaves, long associated with fidelity and eternal love in Greek and Roman symbolism, display a heartlike silhouette. The fig leaf, tied to sensuality in ancient art and myth, and even water lily leaves, often shaped like rounded hearts, may have subtly reinforced the motif in art and decoration.

It Took on a Romantic Meaning in the Middle Ages

By the Middle Ages, the symbolic heart began to appear more frequently in religious art and literature in Europe, often representing divine or spiritual love. In Christian iconography, saints such as St. Augustine were depicted holding or pointing to flaming hearts, symbolizing their devotion to God. The Sacred Heart of Jesus, which emerged in medieval devotional art, emphasized themes of love, sacrifice, and compassion — establishing the heart as a spiritual symbol.

At the same time, more secular interpretations of the heart were gaining popularity. In illuminated manuscripts from the 13th and 14th centuries, lovers were sometimes shown exchanging hearts — both literally and metaphorically. A notable example appears in the 14th-century French manuscript Roman de la Poire (“Romance of the Pear”), in which a man offers his heart, shaped much like the modern symbol, to his beloved. These early heart illustrations were often red, symmetrical, and stylized — but they didn’t always follow today’s orientation. Some were shown with the point facing upward, while others were more angular or leaflike.

The Printing Press Helped Solidify the Symbol

The invention of the printing press in the 15th century helped standardize and spread the heart symbol across Europe. As printed materials became more widely available, so did visual motifs — and the heart, already associated with courtly love and devotion in art, literature, and music, was a popular choice. Early printers used woodcuts to embellish books and pamphlets with heart shapes in religious texts, emblems, and romantic illustrations. Around the same time, in 1498, Leonardo da Vinci created one of the first anatomically accurate drawings of the human heart — but his scientific rendering had little influence on the romanticized symbol already taking hold in popular culture.

As Valentine’s Day evolved into a romantic holiday in England and France, printers began mass-producing cards and tokens adorned with cupids, flowers, and heart motifs. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the heart was everywhere — on embroidery, porcelain, stationery, and jewelry. In the Victorian era, heart-shaped lockets and lace-trimmed valentines became cherished expressions of sentiment. No longer tied to anatomy or philosophy, the heart symbol fully transformed into a visual shorthand for love and emotional connection — a role it still plays today in greeting cards and text messages around the world.

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Greeks and Romans Tossed Grains To Call on the Gods

As civilizations became more organized, these agricultural customs became woven into more formal religious traditions. In ancient Rome, guests often tossed wheat or barley at weddings in honor of Ceres, the goddess of agriculture, fertility, and family. Roman brides sometimes wore crowns or garlands of wheat in their hair, highlighting their expected role in continuing the family line.

Greek ceremonies included similar practices, invoking Demeter, the goddess of the harvest, through offerings of grain. These were not simply quaint traditions — they reflected larger beliefs about the social order, divine favor, and the sacredness of the household. In both cultures, grains were offered not only for luck but also as part of a broader worldview that linked successful marriages with divine blessing and societal stability. A good harvest and a good marriage were seen as intertwined — and both needed the favor of the gods.

Rice Played a Sacred Role in Ancient Asian Ceremonies

While wheat and barley featured prominently in the West, rice took on sacred importance in many Asian cultures. In China, rice has symbolized life, wealth, and harmony with nature for thousands of years. Historically, rice featured prominently in ancestral offerings and seasonal rites, and its association with fertility and family continuity made it a natural part of wedding customs. In some regions, for instance, rice was scattered around newlyweds to bless the union or offered to ancestors to gain their favor for the marriage.

In India, rice has been integral to Hindu wedding rituals for thousands of years. One of the most meaningful customs is Akshata, in which whole grains of rice — often dyed with turmeric or vermilion — are showered on the bride and groom as a symbol of abundance, fertility, and divine favor.

Across Southeast Asia, similar rituals appear, many tied to local fertility goddesses, such as Dewi Sri in Indonesia. Wedding ceremonies often include offerings of rice to spirits or deities to ensure harmony, fertility, and a blessed union. In these cultures, rice is not just food but also spiritual currency, deeply connected to the cycles of life and marriage. 

Rice Was Introduced to Europe Through Trade 

Despite its importance elsewhere, rice was largely unfamiliar in Europe until it began arriving via trade routes from Asia and the Middle East. By the Middle Ages, it had made its way into European markets, thanks to expanding contact with the Islamic world in places such as Spain and Sicily, and increased trade spurred by the Crusades.

At first, rice was considered a luxury item — rare, expensive, and used mostly by the wealthy. But over time, it became more accessible and began appearing in ceremonial contexts, including weddings. Its symbolism — fertility, longevity, and abundance — dovetailed neatly with older European traditions. Long before rice arrived, rural communities used native grains such as wheat, oats, and barley in wedding rites to bless the couple with prosperity and children.

By the 19th century, throwing rice at weddings had become a widespread and beloved tradition in Western cultures. It was a way of honoring ancient fertility symbols with a modern twist, combining imported ingredients with long-held wishes for joy, health, and a flourishing family life.  

How the Rice-Throwing Ritual Has Changed

In recent decades, the tradition of throwing rice has shifted as couples opt for alternatives that are either more environmentally friendly or better suited to specific venues. Today, it’s not uncommon to see guests showering newlyweds with dried flower petals, birdseed, bubbles, or biodegradable confetti. These variations serve the same symbolic purpose — celebrating the beginning of a new life together with joy and good wishes — while also accommodating modern sensibilities.

Some venues discourage the use of rice because of cleanup concerns or the widespread (but incorrect) belief that it harms birds. That myth, which gained traction in the 1980s, claimed that birds would eat the rice, which would swell in their stomachs and cause injury or death. However, wildlife experts and ornithologists have since debunked that idea. Birds can digest uncooked rice just fine — after all, it’s a staple food for many wild species around the world.

While fewer couples may use rice today, the impulse behind the tradition endures. Whether it’s a cloud of bubbles or a scatter of petals, these celebratory send-offs are a continuation of an ancient wish: that the couple’s new life will be fruitful, joyful, and blessed with abundance.

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A More Coordinated School Calendar

By the 1840s, education reformers such as Horace Mann were pushing for change. In line with the broader Common School Movement, Mann thought that free, tax-supported schools should be accessible to all children, and organizing the school calendars was a big piece of the puzzle. Reformers believed rural schools, with their agrarian schedules, were too inconsistent and the number of school days inadequate. Growing urban populations, meanwhile, gave rise to a new model of schooling that grouped students by age in separate classrooms. This “age-graded” approach, which Mann had admired during a visit to Prussia, required a more coordinated school calendar to work smoothly across different districts.

Why Summers Off Made Sense 

In the 19th century, many city schools were in need of renovations and repairs, which were best done in the summer months. The buildings were also, of course, not yet air conditioned, and their overcrowded, poorly ventilated rooms often fueled outbreaks of disease in the summer’s stifling heat. Increasingly, the schools’ wealthiest families took to fleeing the city’s soaring summer temperatures for vacation escapes, further driving social fragmentation and inequalities within the schools. 

At the same time, medical theories claimed that too much mental exertion could overstimulate young minds and lead to exhaustion — or worse. Reformers saw summer as the best time to rest the mind. Summer vacation also addressed urban schools’ public health concerns and gave teachers a much-needed break. The Common School Movement sought to further professionalize the teaching profession, and the extended break gave educators time to take advantage of summer conventions and training programs.

Summer Vacation Is Born

By the end of the 19th century, states had begun implementing school funding eligibility rules, including a minimum number of instructional days. A 180-day calendar took shape, spanning late summer to late spring, with summertime carved out as a clear and consistent break lasting from about the end of June to the end of August. Between 1880 and 1920, the United States’ school calendar fully fell into alignment, and a national rhythm of summer break has been the norm ever since.

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Secretary Desks

Once a symbol of organized sophistication, the secretary desk combined elegance and style with utility. Featuring a hinged, fold-down writing surface and a nest of drawers, cubbies, and sometimes even hidden compartments, it served as the ideal command center for managing household correspondence, finances, and daily affairs.

The name is derived from the French secrétaire à abattant, a drop-front desk. This form rose to prominence in 18th-century France and later found popularity in U.S. homes in the 19th and early 20th centuries, often passed down as family heirlooms. But as handwritten letters and billing statements gave way to email and online banking, the need for a dedicated writing nook waned. Today, the secretary desk is more likely to be admired in antique shops or repurposed as an accent piece — a charming nod to a time when “inbox empty” involved an actual wooden drawer.

Telephone Tables

The telephone table, affectionately known as a “gossip bench,” was the most popular spot in the house in mid-20th-century America. This compact piece of furniture was designed for one very specific mission: managing the family’s single landline telephone. Originating sometime after the invention of the telephone in 1876, this nifty piece evolved out of the telephone stand of the 1890s. It combined a small seat with a tabletop for notepads and pens, and often a built-in shelf or cubby for the bulky phone book. It was the designated spot where people went to share news, plan social events, or simply chat for hours.

As cordless phones freed us from the seat and mobile phones untethered calls from our homes entirely, the telephone table was rendered obsolete. Today, it stands as a charming reminder of a time when phone calls were events — and if you weren’t at home to get the call, you might miss all the good gossip.

Vanities

For decades, the dressing table, also known as a vanity table or vanity, was more than just a piece of furniture — it was a dedicated beauty retreat. With its attached mirror, small drawers, and delicate design, the vanity offered women a personal space to style their hair, apply makeup, and prepare for the day or a glamorous night out. The concept dates back centuries, with origins in late-17th-century Europe, where aristocratic dressing tables were elaborate symbols of refinement. 

During the art deco movement of the early 20th century, when beauty routines were marketed as both necessary and aspirational, vanity tables found a place in American homes. Hollywood helped cement the allure: Silver-screen stars were often photographed perched gracefully at their vanities, surrounded by perfume bottles and powder puffs.

By the late 20th century, however, the rise of modern bathrooms with bright lighting, expansive counters, and built-in storage gradually made the bedroom vanity redundant. As homes evolved for efficiency and space-saving, the once-essential vanity became more of a decorative throwback than a daily necessity. While vanity tables can still be found in vintage-inspired bedrooms, they’re mostly a charming reminder of the glamour of a bygone era.

TV Cabinets

By the 1960s, most American households had a television — but that didn’t mean anyone wanted to see it on display. Early sets were bulky, unattractive, and often viewed as disruptive to a well-appointed living room. So, manufacturers dressed them up in polished wood consoles to make the machines look like part of the living room decor.

As TVs got bigger and the gadgets piled on — VCRs, cable boxes, gaming consoles, stereo receivers, speaker systems — the simple disguise no longer cut it. Enter the TV cabinet and, later, the full-blown entertainment center: hulking structures designed not just to hold a TV, but to contain and conceal the entire home media system. These cabinets peaked in popularity in the 1980s and ’90s, often spanning entire walls and weighing more than the electronics they held. Not only were they practical, but they also soothed lingering anxieties that TV-watching was lazy, lowbrow, or somehow a design failure. Closing the cabinet doors felt like restoring order — and taste — to the room. But as televisions got sleeker and streaming services replaced stacks of movie boxes, the furniture built to hide it all quickly lost its relevance. Now TV cabinets are seen as bulky, old-fashioned relics — like building a closet just to store your iPad.

Chaise Longues

Once the epitome of leisure and elegance, the chaise longue, from the French for “long chair,” has a history stretching back to ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The form evolved through centuries of European refinement, particularly in 16th-century France, where it became a fixture in aristocratic homes as a symbol of comfort and status. By the 19th century, it had taken on new life in Victorian parlors as the fainting couch — a semi-reclined piece thought to offer a graceful landing spot for corseted women who found themselves short of breath.

In the first half of the 20th century, the chaise had a solid run in U.S. homes, especially in bedrooms, sunrooms, and formal living spaces. It offered a spot for reading, relaxing, or striking a languid pose à la an Old Hollywood starlet. It paired comfort with glamour, and no therapist’s office or upscale photo shoot was complete without one. 

But as rooms got smaller and furniture leaned more functional, the chaise longue became harder to justify. It takes up the footprint of a recliner or armchair — with less versatility. And unlike a sofa or sectional, it’s typically built for one, making it less practical for families or shared lounging. The chaise still has its fans, but these days it’s mostly reclining in retirement.

Smoking Stands

Once a fixture in midcentury homes, smoking stands were compact, single-purpose pieces designed to hold everything a well-prepared smoker might need: an ashtray, matches, lighters, and a stash of cigarettes or cigars. Often crafted from wood or metal with decorative flair, smoking stands stood proudly beside armchairs, inviting guests to light up without leaving the conversation. From the 1920s through the 1950s, they were as common as coffee tables — a mark of hospitality and, often, masculine style.

Over time, these more elaborate tables gave way to simpler pedestal ashtray stands — functional but stripped of the frills — as smoking became more routine and less ceremonial. But as the dangers of tobacco use became widely recognized and indoor smoking fell out of favor, even those disappeared. Public bans, health awareness, and minimalist living left little space — literally or socially — for dedicated smoking furniture. Now they’re rarely seen outside of antique shops and estate sales, a reminder of when lighting up was trendy.

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