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The Italian cities of Modena and Bologna fought a “War of the Bucket.”

  • Torre della Ghirlandina bucket
Torre della Ghirlandina bucket
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Author Rachel Gresh
January 18, 2024

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Locked away in the Torre della Ghirlandina — a bell tower in Modena, Italy — sits a wooden bucket that is the namesake of a war. The conflict began in 1325, fought between Modena and Bologna, neighboring city-states with a history of political differences. (The Bolognese supported the pope, while the Modenese supported the Holy Roman Emperor.) It should have been a forgotten political skirmish, but the War of the Bucket went down in history — thanks to the humble oaken pail for which it was named. 

According to popular legend, the war began when the wooden bucket kept in the Bologna town well was allegedly stolen by Modenese soldiers who snuck into town, leading the Bolognese to retaliate in an all-out war. More likely, it started after an invasion of Bologna by the Modenese, and the bucket was a trophy gathered at the end of the war by the victorious Modenese, who were elated at their triumph despite being woefully outnumbered. The role of the bucket was exaggerated as the story was passed down through generations, and the myth was cemented by the poet Alessandro Tassoni’s 1622 satirical poem “La secchia rapita,” in which he joked that the Bolognese offered hostages, towns, and more in exchange for their stolen bucket. One aspect of Tassoni’s poem still rings true, however: He wrote, “the Bucket was soon to be locked away, in the tallest tower it remains to this day, up on high the trophy hangs bound, by a great chain nailed far off the ground.” 

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France and Brazil were engaged in a “Lobster War” in the 1960s.

In 1956, Brazil and France signed an agreement limiting France’s involvement in the South American country — including the fishing industry. But tensions broke out in 1961, when Brazilian locals spotted a fleet of French fishing vessels searching for lobsters nearing the coast, much closer than the 12-mile limit. Brazil launched naval vessels to deter the ships, but the French refused to cooperate, claiming that lobsters “swim,” and therefore Brazil had no territorial claim to the crustaceans because anyone could catch them in the ocean. Brazil disagreed, arguing that lobsters “crawl” along the continental shelf of South America, so they must belong to Brazil. On February 21, 1961, a French destroyer was deployed to safeguard the fishing vessels, but the Brazilian navy intercepted it. Both sides refused to back down, and Brazil doubled down on its fishing regulations. “The attitude of France is inadmissible, and our government will not retreat. The lobster will not be caught,” the Brazilian minister of foreign affairs declared at the time. The skirmish finally ended — without any shots fired — on December 10, 1964, with an agreement that expanded Brazil’s territorial waters to 200 miles, and allowed French fishing vessels to catch lobsters there for a five-year period. The heated debate over whether lobsters swim or crawl was never settled — according to unbiased sources, they do both.

Navy bean soup has been on the Senate menu every day since 1903.

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Spoonful of Navy bean soup
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Author Michael Nordine
May 8, 2025

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Though no one’s sure who to thank for the tradition — some say Senator Fred Dubois of Idaho, while others credit Minnesota’s Knute Nelson — one item has been on the menu on the Capitol Building’s Senate Dining Room every day since 1903: navy bean soup. Also known as Senate bean soup, the hearty stew can trace its mandate back to either Dubois, who chaired the committee that oversaw the Senate Dining Room and passed a resolution in favor of the meal, or Nelson, who simply enjoyed his soup so much that he requested it be served every day. 

The recipe, available on the U.S. Senate website, calls for 2 pounds of dried navy beans, 4 quarts of hot water, 1 ½ pounds of smoked ham hocks, a chopped onion, 2 tablespoons of butter, and salt and pepper to taste; Dubois’ version added mashed potatoes, garlic, and parsley. Navy beans are also known as Boston beans, pea beans, haricot beans, Jigna beans, earl haricot beans, and white pea beans. Their moniker is owed to the fact that the U.S. Navy has served them to its sailors since the mid-19th century, making them as American as apple pie.

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Three senators were former Olympians.

Wendell Anderson, Bill Bradley, and Ben Nighthorse Campbell have something in common beyond the fact that they were Democratic senators: All three competed in the Olympics. Anderson, who represented Minnesota from 1976 to 1978, won a silver medal in hockey at the 1956 Winter Games held in Cortina d’Ampezzo, Italy. Bradley won a gold medal in basketball at the 1964 Olympics in Tokyo, prior to spending 10 years in the NBA and 18 years representing New Jersey in the Senate. And before his 12 years serving Colorado in the upper chamber, Campbell competed in judo at the 1964 Tokyo Olympics as the first Native American on the U.S. team.

Pope John Paul II was the first non-Italian pope in 455 years.

  • Pope John Paul II, 1989
Pope John Paul II, 1989
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Author Michael Nordine
May 1, 2025

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There have been 267 popes in history, the vast majority of whom have hailed from Italy. Indeed, when Karol Józef Wojtyła became Pope John Paul II in 1978, he was the first non-Italian pope since Adrian VI died in 1523 — a span of 455 years. As the Vatican is a microstate surrounded by Rome, Italy’s capital city, it’s unsurprising that the vast majority of popes have been Italian. That includes John Paul II’s predecessor John Paul I, who served for just 33 days before his death on September 28, 1978, making that year the first since 1605 to have three popes in one year.

Born in Wadowice, Poland, on May 18, 1920, John Paul II was among the youngest popes in history. Elected at the age of 58, he was also one of the longest-reigning popes. His 27-year tenure was bested only by Pius IX (31 years) and St. Peter (who is believed to have reigned for 34 years though there are no verifiable records of the dates of his papacy). John Paul II was also something of a trendsetter, as both of his successors, Benedict XVI and Francis, weren’t from Italy either. Benedict XVI, born Joseph Alois Ratzinger, was German and took the rare step of resigning in 2013, while Pope Francis (born Jorge Mario Bergoglio) was from Argentina. Pope Francis was also the first pope from the Americas and the first from outside Europe since the eighth century, when Syria’s Gregory III held the papacy.

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A Polish director made an acclaimed film series based on the Ten Commandments.

Krzysztof Kieślowski made a number of acclaimed movies throughout his legendary career, from the Three Colors trilogy to The Double Life of Veronique, but Dekalog might be his greatest accomplishment. A series of hour-long films originally made for television in 1989 and 1990, each installment (simply named Dekalog: One, Dekalog: Two, and so on) is based on one of the Ten Commandments. None of them is as didactic as that might sound, with most taking place in modern-day Warsaw and some only relating loosely to their corresponding commandments. Dekalog was screened in its entirety at the 46th Venice Film Festival and hailed as a major work, with Stanley Kubrick once citing it as the only “film masterpiece” he could think of and Roger Ebert naming it one of the 10 greatest movies of all time.

In 1941, the U.S. Postal Service moved $9 billion in gold to Fort Knox.

  • Gold Bullion Depository at Fort Knox, 1989
Gold Bullion Depository at Fort Knox, 1989
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Author Michael Nordine
May 1, 2025

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No visitors are allowed at the Fort Knox Bullion Depository, and for good reason: About half of the U.S. Treasury’s gold reserves are stored there, making it one of the most important locations in the country. Also invaluable in its own way is the United States Postal Service, which delivered much of that gold in the first place. One of the most notable shipments occurred when the U.S. entered World War II in 1941, and a portion of the $9 billion was transferred from the New York City Assay Office to Fort Knox via the Railway Mail Service.

The Postal Inspection Service supervised the shipment, which required cooperation between the Army, Treasury, local law enforcement, and the Postal Service. The Bullion Depository was built on land transferred to the Treasury by the military in Fort Knox, Kentucky, in 1936, and various precious items were stored there during the war. This included the Constitution, Declaration of Independence, Articles of Confederation, and a draft of the Gettysburg Address. The U.S. Mint Police protects the depository, which has been called the most heavily guarded place on the planet. 

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The United States has the largest gold reserve in the world.

With 8,133.46 metric tons in its reserves, America holds more gold than any country in the world — and it isn't especially close. Germany is second on the list with an estimated 3,351 metric tons, followed by Italy (2,451 metric tons), France (2,436 metric tons), and Russia (2,295 metric tons). Aside from Fort Knox, the country’s gold reserves are stored at the Denver Mint and the West Point Mint in New York.

Napoleon owned a watch from a company that still exists.

  • Breguet Swiss luxury watch
Breguet Swiss luxury watch
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Author Sarah Anne Lloyd
May 1, 2025

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In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte, then a general in the French army, embarked on a military campaign to Egypt with 35,000 soldiers and three luxury timepieces. Before setting off, he paid a visit to horologist Abraham-Louis Breguet’s shop on Quai de l’Horloge in Paris and purchased a travel clock and two repeater watches, mechanical watches that chime the hour at the press of a button. Some 250 years later, you can still purchase a brand-new Breguet timepiece — that is, if you have at least $20,000 to spend on a watch.

Swiss-born Abraham-Louis Breguet founded his namesake company in 1775, and it rose to elite status in France after gaining Queen Marie Antoinette and King Louis XVI as clients, along with many courtiers. He fled back to Switzerland during the French Revolution, but returned in 1795, just in time for Napoleon’s rise to prominence. His fine timepieces not only were practical for the military leader’s travels, but also helped signal his status among the French elite of the time.

Breguet is one of just a handful of 18th-century luxury watch companies that still operate today. Others include Blancpain, founded in 1735, and Vacheron Constantin, established in 1755. As for Napoleon’s Breguet watches, only his travel clock survives. It’s now part of the collection at the Swiss National Museum.

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Wristwatches started as women’s wear.

Multiple watchmakers take credit for the invention of the wristwatch, but one of the earliest examples on record was made by Breguet for Caroline Murat, Napoleon Bonaparte’s younger sister; it’s listed in the Breguet archives as a “repeater watch for bracelet.” The watch was completed in 1812, but disappeared after 1855. Antoni Patek, another Swiss watchmaker, helped popularize the wristwatch — called “wristlets” at the time — in 1868, after a Hungarian countess commissioned an ornate bangle with a hidden watch face concealed by a little door in the center. She wore it to impress guests at a reception, and the trend caught on.

The longest papal election took almost three years.

  • Portrait of Pope Gregory X
Portrait of Pope Gregory X
Credit: Bettmann via Getty Images
Author Michael Nordine
May 1, 2025

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A papal conclave typically names the pope’s successor within just a few days after it begins. Pope Francis’ successor, for example, was chosen on the second day of the conclave. If the College of the Cardinals wanted to set a record, however, they’d have to deliberate for three years. The longest papal election lasted from 1268 to 1271 — more than two centuries before the Sistine Chapel was built — in Viterbo, Italy, following the death of Clement IV. By the time the next pope, Gregory X, was chosen after two years and nine months, the fine people of Viterbo had grown so angry with their guests, they had torn the roof off the building where the cardinals were staying. 

Among the more important acts of Gregory X’s tenure was establishing a precursor to the papal conclave as we now know it, in large part to ensure that no such delay took place again. He was a little too successful. Because the rules he instituted were so strict — such as sequestering the cardinals for the duration of the conclave — it took only a day for the cardinals to name Gregory X’s successor following his death in January 1276. The new rules were suspended as a result, which naturally led to the opposite problem: a conclave that lasted from April 1292 to July 1294. Old habits die hard, but at least recent conclaves have gone comparatively smoothly now that the rules have landed in a sweet spot: It hasn’t taken more than five days to elect a new pope since 1903.

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Papal elections used to be held where the previous pope died.

There’s a good reason why that three-year election took place in Viterbo: Clement IV died there. The custom at the time was for each papal election to be held in the same town or city where the prior pope had passed away, but this led to some problems: namely, townsfolk growing weary of their visitors, especially in smaller areas that weren’t as well equipped to handle an influx of holy guests with no set checkout date. The first conclave held in the Sistine Chapel took place in 1492, when Pope Innocent VIII was succeeded by Alexander VI, and every conclave since 1878 has convened there. The 1799 to 1800 conclave took place in Venice’s San Giorgio Maggiore, and four conclaves were held at the Pauline Chapel in Rome between 1823 and 1846. 

George Washington refused to shake hands.

  • George Washington portrait
George Washington portrait
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Author Sarah Anne Lloyd
May 1, 2025

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George Washington had many challenges as the first president of the United States, and one of them was a lack of social mores around the presidency. The office was brand-new, so there was no established etiquette — including how constituents were supposed to greet the commander in chief.

Knowing he had to interact with the public, Washington held weekly one-hour receptions, called “levees,” which were very buttoned-up and formal. He received his guests wearing a black velvet suit and carrying a ceremonial sword — and he refused to shake anyone’s hand, which applied to his closest friends as well as the general public. He even held a hat to discourage anyone from trying. Instead, he and his guests would bow stiffly at one another at the beginning and end of the reception.

Washington was attempting to strike a balance between commanding respect and remaining accessible to the public, but his penchant for pomp was a little too close to the British royal court for some Americans. This included Washington’s longtime frenemy Thomas Jefferson, who preferred a more informal style. The presidential salons and customary bowing continued through John Adams’ presidency, but Jefferson abolished the levees and started shaking hands after he took office in 1801.

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George Washington disapproved of the Boston Tea Party.

The Boston Tea Party, the seminal protest in which a group of angry American colonists dumped 342 chests of tea from the British East India Company into Boston Harbor, helped rally colonists toward the cause of independence. But some of the Founding Fathers weren’t happy about it, including George Washington. While he was sympathetic to the cause, he said he disapproved of the participants’ conduct. Benjamin Franklin went a step further and asked that the British East India Company be paid back for the tea. John Adams, on the other hand, cheered the protest, declaring it “so bold, so daring, so firm, intrepid and inflexible.”

Where Does the Name ‘Uncle Sam’ Come From?

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Uncle Sam building poster
Jennifer Griffin/ Unsplash
Author Michael Nordine
January 10, 2024

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Every country needs a national symbol to represent its noble struggle, and the United States has one of the most recognizable: Uncle Sam, who is said to be named after a New York meat merchant. Samuel Wilson of Troy, New York, was himself known as Uncle Sam, an affectionate nickname that became familiar to millions of Americans after he supplied thousands of barrels of beef and pork to hungry troops during the War of 1812. The barrels had “U.S.” stamped on them to indicate that they were government property, but the initials came to be associated with Uncle Sam among grateful soldiers.

The name took off, and before long, illustrations of Uncle Sam began appearing in print. Cartoonists such as Thomas Nast and Joseph Keppler depicted the patriotic figure as a thin and bearded older man with a top hat and coattails, popularizing the image we recognize today. The origin of the name “Uncle Sam” remains disputed, however, and some historians have noted that references to the name appeared in newspapers before Wilson ever stamped “U.S.” on his meat barrels. Still, the legend is widely accepted, and Congress even passed a resolution in 1961 recognizing Wilson as Uncle Sam’s namesake. Today, the figure is inextricably linked with America, but he wasn’t the first personification of the country. He was preceded by Brother Jonathan, a rustic but good-natured character who originated in New England during the American Revolution.

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America has a female personification as well.

Though Uncle Sam is the most famous personification of these United States, he was preceded by Columbia, also known as Miss Columbia and Lady Columbia, a goddess-like figure named for Christopher Columbus. The figure was first introduced in a 1697 poem by Chief Justice Samuel Sewall of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, who suggested naming the colonies Columbina. She took on greater prominence when Phillis Wheatley, a formerly enslaved woman, invoked her in a 1775 ode to George Washington that ends with the lines “Fix’d are the eyes of nations on the scales /For in their hopes Columbia’s arm prevails.” Countless cities and companies have since been named in her honor, and the Columbia Pictures logo is perhaps her best-known modern portrayal.

A mysterious “sweating sickness” struck Europe in 1485.

  • Henry VII of England
Henry VII of England
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Author Sarah Anne Lloyd
January 18, 2024

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In the late 15th century, England got hit with an epidemic straight out of a horror movie: a so-called “sweating sickness,” which appeared suddenly in August 1485, after Henry VII returned to England and claimed the throne following the decisive battle of the Wars of the Roses. Some historians suspect the sickness was brought by mercenaries hired to win the war for the Tudors. Illness came on abruptly and aggressively, usually killing its victims in less than a day and sometimes in as little as two hours. The disease, characterized by aches and fever, worked so quickly that people who survived more than 24 hours typically made a full recovery.

The first wave of sweating sickness, also called the “English sweat” (sudor anglicus in Latin), caused 15,000 deaths in just six weeks. The disease struck England a total of five times over the course of 70 years, always appearing in the late summer or early fall and, puzzlingly, always hitting wealthy people harder. After the fifth outbreak, it disappeared — possibly after mutating into a milder, less-lethal version — leaving one of the world’s greatest medical mysteries behind.

The Black Death, a devastating plague that swept through Europe in the 14th century, was far more deadly than the sweating sickness, but we know conclusively what caused it. Scientists are still searching for an explanation for the sweating sickness more than half a millennium later. One of the prevailing theories was that it was a particularly nasty strain of hantavirus, a respiratory disease spread by rodents; one hantavirus outbreak in 1993 very closely resembled sweating sickness. It could also have been insect-borne like dengue fever, especially given the time of year it typically appeared. Some have even suggested anthrax. But we may never know for sure.

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We might be able to thank sweating sickness for King Henry VIII.

Henry VIII is one of the most notorious English kings in history, known for having six wives and causing England’s break with the Catholic Church. Yet Henry wasn’t born as heir to the throne; his elder brother Arthur was next in line, until Arthur’s sudden death in 1502 at the age of 15. Some historians think the cause of death was sweating sickness, although others believe it was a longer-term illness such as tuberculosis. Regardless, Arthur’s death shook his younger brother, and Henry spent most of his life as a hypochondriac. He was particularly nervous about the sweating sickness, and left town during every outbreak.

Seashells used to be used as currency.

  • Cowrie shells used as money
Cowrie shells used as money
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Author Sarah Anne Lloyd
April 24, 2025

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Long before the gold standard came and went, seashells were a hot commodity — so much so that they were the preferred currency in various civilizations around the world. Cowrie shells, which come from small sea snails, were particularly widespread. While there’s some disagreement among historians about when cowries evolved from valuable items to functional currency, it’s likely that it happened during the Zhou dynasty in China (around 1046 to 256 BCE). The shells declined in use in the 19th century, but were still used as money in Bengal and some parts of West Africa up until the early 20th century.

Unlike most shell money, cowrie shells were used whole and unaltered. In addition to their intrinsic value as an adornment, cowries are durable, portable, and hard to counterfeit. They were also exceedingly difficult to harvest — except in the Maldives, a remote archipelago in the Indian Ocean that, until relatively recently, was extremely difficult to visit. 

Shell money was used all over the world, although the specific type of shell varied greatly. Usually, shells would be crafted into money before going into circulation — such as wampum, which were beads made from clam and whelk shells by Indigenous peoples in the northeastern U.S. Rings made from sea snail shells called Tabu are still used in Papua New Guinea today.

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An ancient pigment was worth three times its weight in gold.

In ancient times, there was no color more luxurious than Tyrian purple, and some Roman emperors even threatened punishment by death to any nonroyals caught wearing the color. Not that anyone else could afford it, anyway: The deep reddish-purple shade was made from snail mucus, and it took around 10,000 snails to make a single gram of dye. The process for turning the snails into pigment was a closely guarded secret, and around the 15th century, that knowledge was lost, despite modern archaeologists trying to piece it back together.

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