What Knowledge Did We Lose With the Library of Alexandria?

  • Founding the Library of Alexandria
Founding the Library of Alexandria
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The famous story of the burning of the Library of Alexandria, and the centuries of knowledge that went up in flames along with it, is often told as a single dramatic event — but that’s somewhat misleading. While fires did occur, the library wasn’t destroyed all at once. Rather, it succumbed to a slow decline over centuries. Its destruction is now shrouded in myth and mystery, but what is certain is that the Library of Alexandria was one of the largest and most significant collections of the ancient world, and its eventual loss was an intellectual tragedy.

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The Fabled Burning

Likely established during the reign of Ptolemy II in the early third century BCE, the Library of Alexander formed part of a larger research institute in Alexandria, Egypt, called the Mouseion (meaning “shrine of the Muses,” the origin of the word “museum”). This great undertaking represented humanity’s most ambitious attempt to collect and preserve human knowledge. 

The library flourished for some six centuries, but by the fifth century CE it had all but ceased to exist. The infamous — and often overstated — fire occurred during Julius Caesar’s occupation of Alexandria in 48 BCE, when he ordered his troops to set fire to enemy ships in the harbor, possibly causing some collateral damage to the library. But Caesar certainly didn’t burn down the whole library. In reality, the collection’s slow demise was due to various factors, many of which were tied to Alexandria’s centuries-long decline as an intellectual center. The library’s books were sold or destroyed, its buildings were eventually razed or converted into churches or mosques, and, in the end, the library simply faded away. 

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What Did Mummies Smell Like?

  • Mummification in Egypt, 19th century
Mummification in Egypt, 19th century
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Although scent and memory are intimately intertwined, it’s not always easy to figure out what the past smelled like. But in the case of Egyptian mummies, historians may actually have an answer, and it’s “surprisingly pleasant.”

Recently, researchers from the University College London collaborated with the Egyptian Museum in Cairo to analyze the scents of nine mummies from a range of time periods in ancient Egyptian history. The resulting study, published in February 2025 in the Journal of the American Chemical Society, combined somewhat traditional sensory analysis — a panel of trained human “sniffers” who described their findings — with techniques to pinpoint the chemical compounds the mummies were emitting.

They looked at nine mummies, dating from Egypt’s New Kingdom (roughly 1539 to 1077 BCE) to its Roman period (30 BCE to 642 CE), and the most common olfactory descriptors people noted were “woody,” “spicy,” and “sweet.” Less commonly, the mummies were described as smelling “incense-like” or “stale, rancid.” The human sniffers were also asked to describe the pleasantness of mummy aromas, technically known as their “hedonic tone.” The average hedonic tone was rated as “slightly pleasant” — not bad, 5,000 or so years after death.

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Some of the most common odor compounds isolated by the more high-tech analysis were “nonanal” (described as smelling fresh and similar to wax, orange peel, and fat), “furfural” (described as being sweet and reminiscent of wood, almonds, and bread), and terpenoids such as α-pinene, d-limonene, l-verbenone, and borneol. Terpenoids usually suggest the use of plant products such as juniper oil, myrrh, and frankincense, which have all been well documented as part of the mummification process.

Indeed, the smells emitted by the mummies come in large part from the materials used to preserve the corpses. While techniques and materials varied over time, Egyptian mummies were often embalmed with resins from trees such as pine, cedar, juniper, and mastic, as well as gum resins (such as myrrh and frankincense), incense, animal fats, waxes, and various other woods, spices, herbs, and flowers. The preservation process also often involved natron salts — a mix of sodium carbonate, hydrogen carbonate, and small amounts of chloride and sulfate.

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Did People in Ancient Rome Really Wear Togas?

  • Young Roman given a toga
Young Roman given a toga
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When we think of ancient Rome, we often think of the toga, generally depicted as a flowing white garment arranged in folds around the body and typically worn over a tunic by senators, philosophers, and citizens in grand marble forums. It’s an image that has persisted for thousands of years and has been reinforced in mythology and history. In the epic poem “Aeneid,” the Roman poet Virgil refers to Romans as “masters of the world, and people of the toga.” And in Roman folklore, Romulus — the founder of Rome — is depicted wearing a toga.

To ancient Romans, the toga represented a symbol of citizenship, status, and identity — and not everyone was entitled to wear it. The evolution of the garment spans centuries and came to symbolize Roman culture and values. As Rome changed, so did its fashion, but the toga remains a lasting image of a civilization that shaped the Western world.

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Romans Weren’t the First To Wear Togas

While the toga is quintessentially Roman, similar garments existed in other ancient cultures. The Greeks wore the himation, a large rectangular cloth draped over the body like a cloak. While less structured than the toga, it also served as a marker of status and decorum. The Etruscans, another ancient Italian society whose culture greatly influenced the Romans, wore the tebenna, a garment resembling the toga that didn’t carry any particular symbolic associations.

What set the Roman toga apart was its evolution into a distinctly Roman symbol. The toga became a visual marker of Roman citizenship, distinguishing Romans from the diverse peoples they ruled, and remained a symbol of Rome long after it fell out of fashion. Roman dress borrowed and incorporated elements from other cultures in the empire, resulting in a variety of toga styles and colors over the centuries that reflected the diversity of the Roman Empire.

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What Were the First Units of Measurement?

  • Old rulers and measuring tools
Old rulers and measuring tools
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The use of measurements has become such an indispensable part of everyday existence that it’s virtually invisible. We check the clock to determine how much time we have before running out the door. We put on clothes that are generally tailored to our bodily dimensions. We measure out a cup for our favorite recipe, run a mile for our daily exercise, or tell the barber to take an inch off the top. And these basic actions don’t even touch on the immense calculations behind the machinery that powers our phones, computers, homes, and vehicles. 

It’s difficult to imagine life without these widely accepted designations to provide order to our actions. Indeed, it was in large part the consolidation of disparate measurements within the earliest human communities and villages that enabled the world’s first great cities and nations to take shape. From Babylonian minas to Egyptian cubits, here are some of those earliest known units of measurements.

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Prehistoric People Formed Primitive Measuring Devices

There’s evidence that our prehistoric ancestors used tools to fashion rudimentary measurement systems. The 40,000-year-old Lebombo bone and the 20,000-year-old Ishango bone are two such examples. Unearthed in Africa, both are notched at regular intervals to indicate functionality as a ruler, and the latter bone was possibly also used to track lunar cycles.

Some of the earliest measurement systems began to coagulate around the Neolithic people who settled in Mesopotamia. Clay tokens used to mark possessions and transactions appeared as far back as 7500 BCE, and these eventually morphed into the cuneiform indentations that appeared around 3500 BCE and were largely used for accounting purposes. While the Sumerians of this era developed a complex counting system, by around 3100 BCE it had been simplified into the base-60 sexagesimal system (60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour, 360 degrees in a circle, and so on) that went on to enable developments in timekeeping and astronomy. 

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Which Came First: Wine or Beer?

  • Glasses of beer and red wine
Glasses of beer and red wine
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Whether you’re enjoying a glass of cabernet with a meal or downing IPAs with friends, you’re taking part in the multifaceted, multicultural act of alcohol consumption that dates back many thousands of years.

Indeed, although the dangers of excessive drinking are well known, and even small amounts of alcohol are now believed to come with health risks, imbibing has been part of the fabric of human existence since the dawn of recorded time. Some anthropologists argue that alcohol featured prominently in social customs that facilitated the rise and progression of civilizations. Others suggest that civilization itself was formed as a result of people settling in one area to domesticate crops for the production of alcohol.

Because spirits such as whiskey or vodka involve a more complex distillation process, beer and wine (and wine’s less-prominent cousin, mead) are the earliest forms of alcohol, left over from a time before any of humanity’s famous names, wars, or inventions etched themselves into history. Which sets up the ultimate bar debate: Which of these two ancient libations is older?

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Early Humans Likely Discovered Alcohol by Accident

To let some of the air out of the suspense, we’ll note that it’s difficult to pinpoint when people first began drinking wine or beer, since proto-versions of both drinks can be formed with little to no human intervention.

Ethanol, or drinking alcohol, is created through the fermentation process that takes place when sugar meets yeast. In the case of beer, that occurs when a grain such as barley is exposed to moisture and its starches are converted into sugar, priming this component for catalyzation by deliberately introduced or naturally appearing yeast. Similarly, crushed or even overripe fruits with high sugar content including grapes or figs will naturally begin to ferment, creating the basis for wine.

It’s likely that early humans (or even animals) stumbled upon the intoxicating effects of fermented grains and fruits, and maybe even figured out how to replicate the experience by leaving their collected wares out in the elements for too long. We can only speculate on the concoctions that may have been experimentally produced by pre-Neolithic people, although they were almost certainly different from the beers and wines that emerged under more controlled conditions in later epochs.

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What Is the World’s Oldest Story?

  • Inscribed “Epic of Gilgamesh” tablet
Inscribed “Epic of Gilgamesh” tablet
Credit: DEA / BIBLIOTECA AMBROSIANA/ De Agostini via Getty Images

Whether relayed by way of a novel, poem, movie, or word of mouth, stories have served as a means of connecting people through shared experiences and emotions since we first learned to communicate with one another.

Some of the most famous stories have endured for hundreds or thousands of years. William Shakespeare penned his celebrated plays in the 16th and 17th centuries. Beowulf was written several hundred years before that, while the Iliad and Odyssey epics push back even further into the first millennium BCE.

And yet there are even older and far more obscure examples of storytelling that won’t turn up in a college literature course. Which inspires the question: How far back do we need to travel to find the world’s oldest story?

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The “Epic of Gilgamesh” Is the Oldest Surviving Written Tale

The ancient Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh is often cited as the oldest known surviving story. This epic poem tells the tale of King Gilgamesh, the part-divine ruler of the ancient city of Urek, who battles terrible monsters sent forth by spiteful gods and seeks out a plant that brings eternal youth. Derived from sources that date back to approximately 2100 BCE, the first full version of Gilgamesh appeared on cuneiform tablets early the following millennium.

But while this would be an early example of a story that could be held and read, it’s more accurate to refer to Gilgamesh as the oldest known work of narrative literature. If you consider visual art capable of telling a story, then there are plenty of surviving creations that predate the written word.

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How Were the Egyptian Pyramids Built?

  • Engraving of the Pyramids of Giza
Engraving of the Pyramids of Giza
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Ancient Egypt was home to more than 100 pyramids, many of which still stand today. One of the oldest monumental pyramids in Egypt, the Step Pyramid of Djoser, was built sometime between 2667 BCE and 2648 BCE and began a period of pyramid construction lasting more than a thousand years. The most famous monuments are found at the Giza complex, home to the Great Pyramid, the Pyramid of Khafre, and the Pyramid of Menkaure, all built during the Fourth Dynasty around 2600 to 2500 BCE — the golden age of ancient Egypt.

The Egyptian pyramids stand as one of humanity’s most remarkable architectural achievements, and their incredible precision and massive scale have confounded researchers for centuries. Despite numerous theories and extensive archaeological research, the exact methods of their construction remain a subject of scholarly debate. How did ancient Egyptians erect pyramids using millions of massive blocks weighing as much as 2.5 tons each? And how, more specifically, did they move those blocks up the superstructure? 

To this day, there is no known historical or archaeological evidence that resolves the question definitively. While popular speculation often veers into fantastical explanations — yes, including aliens — serious historians and archaeologists have given much thought as to how these monumental structures might have been erected using the technological capabilities of the time. Here are three of the most likely construction theories. 

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The Herodotus Machine

The first historical account of the construction of the pyramids came from the ancient Greek historian Herodotus in the fifth century BCE. In his Histories, he wrote that the Great Pyramid took 20 years to build and demanded the labor of 100,000 people. Herodotus also wrote that after laying the stones for the base, workers “raised the remaining stones to their places by means of machines formed of short wooden planks. The first machine raised them from the ground to the top of the first step. On this there was another machine, which received the stone upon its arrival and conveyed it to the second step,” and so on. 

These “Herodotus Machines,” as they later became known, are speculated to have used a system of levers or ropes (or both) to lift blocks incrementally between levels of the pyramid. Egyptian priests told Herodotus about this system — but it’s important to note that this was a long time after the construction of the Great Pyramid, so neither the priests nor Herodotus were actual eyewitnesses to its construction. It is certainly feasible, however, that the machines he described may have been used, either by themselves or, more likely, in conjunction with other methods.

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What Were the Earliest Hotels Like?

  • Maids Head Hotel in Norwich
Maids Head Hotel in Norwich
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Whether we’re checking into a five-star resort or a shack with a roof and cable TV off the interstate, we all expect a base level of service for a stay at a hotel. Of course, this is a luxury that comes with 21st-century lodging. Amenities such as running water, clean sheets, and free coffee are taken for granted nowadays, but they certainly weren’t the industry standard in the early days of hospitality.

Given that it’s easier to enjoy the view from our comfy modern chairs, let’s take a look at the rise of this form of transitory housing in various parts of the world, and revisit what it was like for guests to experience the earliest hotels.

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Caravanserai of the Middle East 

As ancient civilizations flourished in the modern-day Middle East, it ignited the spread of trade routes into Asia and Europe, and with that development came the need for lodging to shelter travelers who were on the road for weeks to months at a time.

As described in Elaine Denby’s Grand Hotels: Reality and Illusion, these early shelters populated the regular paths at frequent enough intervals to accommodate travelers, who often covered 15 to 20 miles in a single day. Known by such names as caravanserai, khan, or han, these mud-brick buildings typically provided guests with beds, stables, and a well or cistern for drinking water, although food was not necessarily part of the arrangement.

A more elaborate and still-standing example of caravanserai is the Ribat-i Sharaf in modern-day Iran. Built in the 12th century, this fortified complex boasted an inner and outer courtyard, a mosque, and detailed stucco decoration, rendering it suitable for royals and government officials.

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5 Gladiators Who Deserve Their Own Movie

  • Commodus at the Colosseum
Commodus at the Colosseum
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The first known gladiator competition in ancient Rome occurred in 264 BCE at the funeral of Brutus Pera, where three sets of combatants fought to the death. Before long, gladiator fights became extremely popular among the Roman public and were treated as entertaining spectacles despite the brutal violence displayed. 

As the sport gained popularity, the number of gladiators grew, peaking in the year 107 CE when the Roman Emperor Trajan welcomed around 5,000 pairs of gladiators to perform during a 123-day series of celebrations throughout the city of Rome. Many of these battles took place at the Colosseum, which was built between 70 and 72 CE, and served as the site for the grandest gladiatorial contests. But there were also various smaller arenas and amphitheaters throughout the Roman Empire that played host to these competitions. 

The gladiators of ancient Rome came from all kinds of backgrounds; some participated for the thrill of the sport and to earn the adoration of their fellow Romans, though most were enslaved people or prisoners fighting for their freedom. But regardless of social standing, successful fighters were often considered heroes throughout Roman society. While most of these gladiators have been forgotten to the annals of history, a few warriors are still known by name and discussed today. In honor of the 2024 release of Ridley Scott’s Gladiator II, the sequel to his Oscar-winning 2000 film Gladiator, here are five famous real-life Roman fighters who deserve their own movies.

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Spartacus

Spartacus is the one gladiator on this list who already has his own movie, the eponymous 1960 film starring Kirk Douglas. That’s in part because Spartucus’ fame came not from his success in the arena, but from leading a major revolt of enslaved people against the Roman Republic from 73 to 71 BCE. 

The details of Spartacus’ early life are murky. Some historians suspect he served as a soldier before abandoning the Roman army,  and was later caught, sold into slavery, and sent to a Capuan gladiatorial training school. Spartacus never fought gladiatorial fights in the Colosseum, which wasn’t built until nearly 150 years after his death. Instead, he fought most of his battles with fellow trainees — that is, until he and around 70 fellow students escaped gladiatorial school and fled to take refuge on nearby Mount Vesuvius.

As leader of this new rebel alliance, Spartacus led raids against his former oppressors, pillaging various locations throughout the Roman countryside. His exploits attracted the attention of other escaped enslaved people, who went to Mount Vesuvius to join the rebellion, and in time, the group eclipsed 90,000 members. The guerrilla attacks continued, and the conflict became known as the Third Servile War, or Gladiatorial War. Spartacus and his men traveled across the Roman Empire amassing victory after victory, fighting against the oppressive rule that had forced them into slavery. These revolts came to an end in 71 BCE at a battle roughly 35 miles southeast of Naples, Italy, the likely location of Spartacus’ death. 

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How Did the Romans Represent Zero?

  • The number zero
The number zero
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The origins of zero as a mathematical symbol — and concept — are fascinating. As early as 5,000 years ago in ancient Mesopotamia, Sumerian scribes used a slanted double wedge between cuneiform symbols to denote the absence of a number. In the third century BCE, the Babylonians developed a numerical system based on values of 60 and used a symbol of two small wedges to differentiate between tenths, hundredths, and thousandths. Around the fourth century CE, the Maya independently developed their own symbol to represent zero on their calendar. But each of these early systems only recognized the symbolic zero as a placeholder, not as a unique number with its own properties and value.

It was around the fifth century CE that mathematicians in India first formalized the use of zero as both a placeholder and a number with intrinsic value, using a small dot to signify zero. This innovation spread through Islamic scholars, who refined the concept and integrated it into advanced calculations and algebra. It wasn’t until the 12th century that this zero reached Europe, transforming mathematics by making complex calculations possible. Given this was several decades after the fall of the Roman Empire, it begs the question: What did the Romans do without zero?

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The Roman Numeral System Didn’t Have Zero

In contrast to other ancient cultures, the Romans — whose numerical system was constructed quite differently — had no mathematical symbol for zero. Roman numerals relied on seven specific symbols for values: I (1), V (5), X (10), L (50), C (100), D (500), and M (1,000), which were stacked next to each other to represent all other numbers, usually through addition. For example, XII represents 12 (10 + 1 + 1). Subtraction was used as well, though it wasn’t common until the Middle Ages. This was done by placing a smaller numeral before a larger one; for example, IX represents 9 (10 – 1). Simple arithmetic such as addition and subtraction was done on a counting board known as an abacus, and the value of “none” could be represented on the tool by an empty row.

The Romans did not have a symbol for zero in mathematical computations because they didn’t need it — but they did need a way to denote the absence of a quantity, such as in record-keeping. In these cases, the Latin words nulla or nihil, meaning “none” or “nothing,” served as linguistic placeholders and were abbreviated using N. These words, however, had no mathematical function; they were simply an expression of emptiness rather than part of the formal numerical system. This convention shows that Romans recognized the practical need to denote “nothing” even while they lacked the abstract mathematical understanding of zero as its own number.

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