How Were the Egyptian Pyramids Built?

Engraving of the Pyramids of Giza

Ancient Egypt was home to more than 100 pyramids, many of which still stand today. One of the oldest monumental pyramids in Egypt, the Step Pyramid of Djoser, was built sometime between 2667 BCE and 2648 BCE and began a period of pyramid construction lasting more than a thousand years. The most famous monuments are found at the Giza complex, home to the Great Pyramid, the Pyramid of Khafre, and the Pyramid of Menkaure, all built during the Fourth Dynasty around 2600 to 2500 BCE — the golden age of ancient Egypt.

The Egyptian pyramids stand as one of humanity’s most remarkable architectural achievements, and their incredible precision and massive scale have confounded researchers for centuries. Despite numerous theories and extensive archaeological research, the exact methods of their construction remain a subject of scholarly debate. How did ancient Egyptians erect pyramids using millions of massive blocks weighing as much as 2.5 tons each? And how, more specifically, did they move those blocks up the superstructure?

To this day, there is no known historical or archaeological evidence that resolves the question definitively. While popular speculation often veers into fantastical explanations — yes, including aliens — serious historians and archaeologists have given much thought as to how these monumental structures might have been erected using the technological capabilities of the time. Here are three of the most likely construction theories.

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The Herodotus Machine

The first historical account of the construction of the pyramids came from the ancient Greek historian Herodotus in the fifth century BCE. In his Histories, he wrote that the Great Pyramid took 20 years to build and demanded the labor of 100,000 people. Herodotus also wrote that after laying the stones for the base, workers “raised the remaining stones to their places by means of machines formed of short wooden planks. The first machine raised them from the ground to the top of the first step. On this there was another machine, which received the stone upon its arrival and conveyed it to the second step,” and so on.

These “Herodotus Machines,” as they later became known, are speculated to have used a system of levers or ropes (or both) to lift blocks incrementally between levels of the pyramid. Egyptian priests told Herodotus about this system — but it’s important to note that this was a long time after the construction of the Great Pyramid, so neither the priests nor Herodotus were actual eyewitnesses to its construction. It is certainly feasible, however, that the machines he described may have been used, either by themselves or, more likely, in conjunction with other methods.

The External Ramp Theory

Archaeologists generally agree that a system of ramps must have been used, in some form or another, to drag the millions of blocks into their positions in the various pyramids. While there’s no remaining physical evidence of external ramps at the Great Pyramid, traces can be seen around some of the other Old Kingdom structures. One initial theory posited the use of a single, linear ramp built on one side of the pyramid, which would have been gradually raised as the pyramid progressed. But, considering that an 8% slope is about the maximum possible slope for moving such heavy blocks, a ramp such as this would have needed to be about a mile long to reach the top of the pyramid. That would mean constructing the ramp would have been as much of a task as building the pyramid itself, making the theory unlikely, especially for larger structures such as the Great Pyramid.

There are a few other ramp theories, however. One proposes that a series of switchback, or staircase, ramps could have been built, zigzagging up just one face of the pyramid. Traces of these have been found at the Sinki, Meidum, Giza, Abu Ghurob, and Lisht pyramids. Other archaeologists have speculated that a spiraling ramp could have been used, which would have wrapped around the entire pyramid. This is a popular theory, although it does have its problems. As with the straight or linear ramp, this ramp would potentially have been a mile long if it was used to build the Great Pyramid, making it in itself a massive construction project. It’s also not clear how workers could have maneuvered 2.5-ton blocks around the corners of the ramp. Archaeologist Mark Lehner did make a practical demonstration of how this could be done, but it was on a far, far smaller pyramid.

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The Internal Ramp Theory

In 2007, the French architect Jean-Pierre Houdin offered a new theory to solve the mystery of how Egypt’s Great Pyramid was built. Using archaeological research combined with 3D computer modeling, he argued that the Egyptians used an internal — rather than external — system of ramps to build the pyramid. Workers, he theorized, used an outer ramp to build the first 141 feet, then constructed a spiraling inner ramp to carry stones to the apex of the 482-foot-tall pyramid. Using this technique, Houdin argued, the pyramid could have been built by around 4,000 people instead of 100,000, as other theories suggest.

The internal ramp theory was met with much intrigue, with some archaeologists skeptical and others arguing that it’s as valid as any other concept. Interestingly, Houdin’s proposal would explain why no evidence of ramps has been found at the Great Pyramid: They could be still there, hidden inside the structure. He and his team continue to work on the hypothesis, in search of definitive evidence of internal ramp structures with the help of 3D scanning technology.

Whether concrete proof will ever be found to support one particular theory is yet to be seen. It’s entirely possible, of course, that the Egyptians utilized various construction techniques when building the pyramids, combining levers and both external and internal ramps — as well as other possible methods — to overcome whatever challenges came their way.

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What Were the Earliest Hotels Like?

Maids Head Hotel in Norwich

Whether we’re checking into a five-star resort or a shack with a roof and cable TV off the interstate, we all expect a base level of service for a stay at a hotel. Of course, this is a luxury that comes with 21st-century lodging. Amenities such as running water, clean sheets, and free coffee are taken for granted nowadays, but they certainly weren’t the industry standard in the early days of hospitality.

Given that it’s easier to enjoy the view from our comfy modern chairs, let’s take a look at the rise of this form of transitory housing in various parts of the world, and revisit what it was like for guests to experience the earliest hotels.

Caravanserai of the Middle East

As ancient civilizations flourished in the modern-day Middle East, it ignited the spread of trade routes into Asia and Europe, and with that development came the need for lodging to shelter travelers who were on the road for weeks to months at a time.

As described in Elaine Denby’s Grand Hotels: Reality and Illusion, these early shelters populated the regular paths at frequent enough intervals to accommodate travelers, who often covered 15 to 20 miles in a single day. Known by such names as caravanserai, khan, or han, these mud-brick buildings typically provided guests with beds, stables, and a well or cistern for drinking water, although food was not necessarily part of the arrangement.

A more elaborate and still-standing example of caravanserai is the Ribat-i Sharaf in modern-day Iran. Built in the 12th century, this fortified complex boasted an inner and outer courtyard, a mosque, and detailed stucco decoration, rendering it suitable for royals and government officials.

Roman Mansiones and Tabernae

With their extensive network of roads that blanketed much of Europe, the ancient Romans also produced a system of lodging at regular intervals for travelers. High-ranking officials and well-connected merchants with official government documentation could enjoy a comfortable night's sleep, a full meal, and fresh horses to take for the next leg of the journey at a stone-built inn known as a mansio.

Those who were less fortunate often had to take their chances with the lower-scale tabernae, which presented an array of hazards that included uncomfortable reed-stuffed mattresses, unsanitary kitchens, poor drinking water, and vermin.

Travelers in rural areas, meanwhile, often found themselves bedding down in what were essentially glorified stables. Such remote lodging, with its poorly fastened doors, could leave customers at the mercy of other ill-intentioned guests or an unscrupulous innkeeper.

Asian Post Houses and Ryokan

The caravanserai that dotted the western sections of the Silk Road took on similar forms in the lodgings found nearer to the east end of the trade route, in China. Those in the employ of the Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan enjoyed what tended to be luxurious stays in these dwellings, as documented by Venetian explorer Marco Polo: "Every 25 miles there is a beautiful, palatial post house where the messengers can stay in magnificent beds with silk sheets and every other luxury suitable for a king," he wrote. "There are always 400 well-kept horses ready, which are supplied and fed by nearby towns. There are more than 10,000 such palaces, all beautifully furnished, and more than 200,000 horses in all."

Elsewhere in Asia, a different form of lodging took root. When pilgrimages to Buddhist temples in Japan became popular among the eighth-century aristocracy, the temples were arranged to accommodate guests; this hospitality was said to mark the beginnings of the ryokan, a traditional Japanese inn often built in the vicinity of natural hot spring baths.

Some of the ryokan that emerged from this early period remain popular with modern travelers seeking a respite from their busy urban lives. Dating back to 705 CE, Nishiyama Onsen Keiunkan has been recognized by Guinness World Records as the oldest continuously running hotel in the world. The second-oldest, Houshi Ryokan, has been operated by the same family since opening in 718 CE.

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Inns of Medieval Europe

Along with the traffic of traveling tradesmen, the paths carved out by religious pilgrims prompted the need for places of shelter in medieval Europe. Although many of the hostels and hospices were overseen by benevolent monks, lodgers still had to deal with such discomforts as flea-infested floors and a log in lieu of a pillow.

Other long-standing inns of the region offered accommodations that were literally fit for a king. The Angel and Royal in Grantham, England, was said to have hosted King John in 1213, while its current restaurant was the site of Richard III receiving the Great Seal in 1483. Similarly, the historic Maids Head Hotel in Norwich provided lodging for Cardinal Wolsey in 1519 and for members of Queen Elizabeth I's entourage in 1587.

By the Late Middle Ages, England's larger cities had somewhere in the neighborhood of 10 to 20 inns. A typical inn featured a kitchen, stable, storage rooms, and varying degrees of private and communal sleeping quarters. Their proprietors stood out as prominent figures about town, with many innkeepers also serving in local government posts and as banking agents.

As it became increasingly common for vacationers to travel for pleasure, many older European coaching inns, so named for the coach travelers they received, began adding private sitting rooms and entertainment venues geared toward the longer-staying guests. One such example is the U.K.'s Lion Hotel Shrewsbury, which unveiled an elegant ballroom in the late 18th century.

United States: From Taverns to Modern Luxury

Spawned from the inns that populated Britain, the taverns of North American metropolitan centers took on their own distinct character by the early years of the new republic. Typically featuring six to 10 rooms in nondistinct buildings, these taverns were notorious for filthy conditions and indifferent service, with lodgers often forced to share rooms and even beds with strangers.

However, it wasn't long before the modern hotel emerged from these settings. From its opening in 1794, the City Hotel in New York came equipped with a ballroom, a bar, public parlors, and the largest circulating library in the country. Most important, the 137-room hotel offered its guests a luxury that was largely nonexistent in the downscale taverns: private sleeping rooms.

Boston's Exchange Coffee House upped the ante for extravagance: A seven-story behemoth with more than 200 rooms, the hotel featured a glass-paneled atrium, a ballroom, retail stores, a coffee house, and an exchange floor. Its mammoth dimensions led to its downfall, though, as firemen were unable to reach the 1818 blaze that began on its top floors and spread until the structure was incinerated less than 10 years after it was completed.

The quest to further refine the guest experience continued with the 1829 debut of Boston's 170-room Tremont House, which offered such amenities as indoor plumbing, individually keyed locks, and a bell communication system. While this sort of luxury accommodation was the exception instead of the norm, the widespread acceptance of the term “hotel” over “tavern” by this time demonstrated that there was no going back to the lax standards of the previous century.

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5 Gladiators Who Deserve Their Own Movie

Commodus at the Colosseum

The first known gladiator competition in ancient Rome occurred in 264 BCE at the funeral of Brutus Pera, where three sets of combatants fought to the death. Before long, gladiator fights became extremely popular among the Roman public and were treated as entertaining spectacles despite the brutal violence displayed.

As the sport gained popularity, the number of gladiators grew, peaking in the year 107 CE when the Roman Emperor Trajan welcomed around 5,000 pairs of gladiators to perform during a 123-day series of celebrations throughout the city of Rome. Many of these battles took place at the Colosseum, which was built between 70 and 72 CE, and served as the site for the grandest gladiatorial contests. But there were also various smaller arenas and amphitheaters throughout the Roman Empire that played host to these competitions.

The gladiators of ancient Rome came from all kinds of backgrounds; some participated for the thrill of the sport and to earn the adoration of their fellow Romans, though most were enslaved people or prisoners fighting for their freedom. But regardless of social standing, successful fighters were often considered heroes throughout Roman society. While most of these gladiators have been forgotten to the annals of history, a few warriors are still known by name and discussed today. In honor of the 2024 release of Ridley Scott’s Gladiator II, the sequel to his Oscar-winning 2000 film Gladiator, here are five famous real-life Roman fighters who deserve their own movies.

Spartacus

Spartacus is the one gladiator on this list who already has his own movie, the eponymous 1960 film starring Kirk Douglas. That’s in part because Spartucus’ fame came not from his success in the arena, but from leading a major revolt of enslaved people against the Roman Republic from 73 to 71 BCE.

The details of Spartacus’ early life are murky. Some historians suspect he served as a soldier before abandoning the Roman army, and was later caught, sold into slavery, and sent to a Capuan gladiatorial training school. Spartacus never fought gladiatorial fights in the Colosseum, which wasn’t built until nearly 150 years after his death. Instead, he fought most of his battles with fellow trainees — that is, until he and around 70 fellow students escaped gladiatorial school and fled to take refuge on nearby Mount Vesuvius.

As leader of this new rebel alliance, Spartacus led raids against his former oppressors, pillaging various locations throughout the Roman countryside. His exploits attracted the attention of other escaped enslaved people, who went to Mount Vesuvius to join the rebellion, and in time, the group eclipsed 90,000 members. The guerrilla attacks continued, and the conflict became known as the Third Servile War, or Gladiatorial War. Spartacus and his men traveled across the Roman Empire amassing victory after victory, fighting against the oppressive rule that had forced them into slavery. These revolts came to an end in 71 BCE at a battle roughly 35 miles southeast of Naples, Italy, the likely location of Spartacus’ death.

Crixus

Crixus was a contemporary of Spartacus and was among the enslaved gladiator trainees who fled Capua for refuge on Mount Vesuvius. After their unlikely escape, Crixus, Spartacus, and a gladiator named Oenomaus were chosen as leaders of the rebellion. As a trusted ally of Spartacus, Crixus played an important role in the Third Servile War.

In his book The Spartacus War, author Barry Strauss wrote that Crixus was far more popular than Spartacus, who “had only a small number of supporters.” Crixus was a cunning tactician who earned the trust of his fellow rebels, and, Strauss wrote, “had behind him the majority of his fellow Celts as well as the majority of the Germans.” Due to strategic disagreements, Crixus and his followers splintered off from the group led by Spartacus, which the Greek philosopher Plutarch claimed was because of Crixus’ “arrogance and presumption.” Shortly after this schism, Crixus fell in battle in the year 72 BCE, one year before Spartacus.

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Marcus Attilius

Unlike many enslaved people who were forced into becoming gladiators, Marcus Attilius was born free and willingly chose to fight. Attilius’ gladiatorial career is believed to have taken place around 70 to 79 CE, and his first fight was against a storied veteran named Hilarus at an amphitheater in Pompeii. This was unusual, given that gladiators of equal skill sets were often pitted against each other. But Attilius shocked the masses by handedly defeating Hilarus, and that feat was followed by the defeat of yet another veteran in his next match.

Attilius’ wins were so notable, they inspired contemporary artists to draw graffiti-like sketches of his triumphs. Today, these sketches can be found within the Nuceria Gate necropolis at Pompeii, as they were well preserved by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE. The drawings feature the triumphant Attilius with a “V” — meaning “victory” — next to his likeness, while his two veteran opponents are depicted as the losers.

Flamma

Flamma was a gladiator of Syrian origin who thrived as a professional combatant during the reign of Roman Emperor Hadrian (117 to 138 CE). There are no reliable records of Flamma’s early life, or how he ended up in gladiatorial school. But what we do know is that Flamma was highly revered among spectators of the sport, and he relished in the adoration.

According to Rachael Hanel’s book Gladiators, Flamma “exhibited the most well-known case of this love of attention.” Despite being awarded the rudis — a ceremonial baton that was granted to enslaved gladiators to grant them their freedom — on four separate occasions, Flamma refused to accept it and opted to return to the arena. He inspired a cult following among fans, before being struck down in gladiatorial battle at the age of 30. According to his gravestone in Sicily — where many of his gladiator fights took place — Flamma fought 34 times, winning 21 contests and tying nine.

Commodus

Commodus is best known for being the emperor of Rome from 177 to 192 CE, and you may remember the villainous fictionalized version of him portrayed by actor Joaquin Phoenix in the 2000 film Gladiator. But unlike other emperors, Commodus was known to take up arms and enter the gladiator arena himself, largely to stoke his own ego. In fact, he was considered to be among the most volatile, selfish, and unsuccessful emperors in Roman history, and he even attempted to rename Rome “Colonia Commodiana” after himself. Commodus also believed that he was the god Hercules, which likely added to his delusions about his skills as a gladiator.

According to the fourth-century CE text Historia Augusta — a series of biographies about Roman emperors — Commodus was “born a gladiator, not really a prince.” It’s said he fought in hundreds of gladiatorial bouts, though these contests were often heavily skewed in his favor. No opponent wanted to harm the emperor of Rome, giving Commodus an unfair advantage. He was known for being ruthlessly violent in his quest for glory. According to legend, he once killed 100 bears from up in his imperial balcony, and he was also known to shoot a bow and arrow at lions from a safe distance.

Many of Commodus’ contemporaries viewed his gladiatorial obsession as unbecoming of an emperor, given that many gladiators were from lower social classes. These tensions finally came to a head in 192 CE, when Commodus was assassinated by a wrestling partner.

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How Did the Romans Represent Zero?

The number zero

The origins of zero as a mathematical symbol — and concept — are fascinating. As early as 5,000 years ago in ancient Mesopotamia, Sumerian scribes used a slanted double wedge between cuneiform symbols to denote the absence of a number. In the third century BCE, the Babylonians developed a numerical system based on values of 60 and used a symbol of two small wedges to differentiate between tenths, hundredths, and thousandths. Around the fourth century CE, the Maya independently developed their own symbol to represent zero on their calendar. But each of these early systems only recognized the symbolic zero as a placeholder, not as a unique number with its own properties and value.

It was around the fifth century CE that mathematicians in India first formalized the use of zero as both a placeholder and a number with intrinsic value, using a small dot to signify zero. This innovation spread through Islamic scholars, who refined the concept and integrated it into advanced calculations and algebra. It wasn’t until the 12th century that this zero reached Europe, transforming mathematics by making complex calculations possible. Given this was several decades after the fall of the Roman Empire, it begs the question: What did the Romans do without zero?

The Roman Numeral System Didn’t Have Zero

In contrast to other ancient cultures, the Romans — whose numerical system was constructed quite differently — had no mathematical symbol for zero. Roman numerals relied on seven specific symbols for values: I (1), V (5), X (10), L (50), C (100), D (500), and M (1,000), which were stacked next to each other to represent all other numbers, usually through addition. For example, XII represents 12 (10 + 1 + 1). Subtraction was used as well, though it wasn’t common until the Middle Ages. This was done by placing a smaller numeral before a larger one; for example, IX represents 9 (10 – 1). Simple arithmetic such as addition and subtraction was done on a counting board known as an abacus, and the value of “none” could be represented on the tool by an empty row.

The Romans did not have a symbol for zero in mathematical computations because they didn’t need it — but they did need a way to denote the absence of a quantity, such as in record-keeping. In these cases, the Latin words nulla or nihil, meaning “none” or “nothing,” served as linguistic placeholders and were abbreviated using N. These words, however, had no mathematical function; they were simply an expression of emptiness rather than part of the formal numerical system. This convention shows that Romans recognized the practical need to denote “nothing” even while they lacked the abstract mathematical understanding of zero as its own number.

The Romans Were Resistant to Zero

The Roman numeral system, though effective for basic counting and trade, became cumbersome as calculations grew more complex. Without a zero symbol, Roman mathematicians and merchants struggled with place values, making arithmetic operations such as multiplication or division challenging. This absence of zero also meant the system was unsuited to large-scale mathematics or scientific calculation, though that didn’t seem to significantly impact the Romans’ impressive engineering designs.

When the Hindu-Arabic numeral system, which included zero, arrived in Europe through Islamic scholars in the Middle Ages, the Romans initially resisted using it. Zero was not just a foreign concept but was also seen as a potential philosophical threat, symbolizing “nothingness” in a way that seemed unsettling to those accustomed to tangible numbers and symbols. Aristotle believed that “nature abhors a vacuum” and asserted there was no such thing as nothing. The Catholic Church also rejected the numerical concept of zero due to its association with the infinite, an idea that conflicted with religious teachings at the time.

An Italian Mathematician Helped Bring the Zero to Europe

Italian mathematician Leonardo Pisano, better known as Fibonacci, introduced the Hindu-Arabic numeral system to Europe through his groundbreaking book Liber Abaci (The Book of Numbers) in 1202. He referred to zero as zephirum, a term derived from the Arabic word ṣifr, meaning "empty" or "nothing." This Arabic term, in turn, originated from the Sanskrit word śūnya, which also means "empty." Over time, zephirum evolved linguistically, becoming zefiro in Italian and "zero" in modern English.

By the late Middle Ages, zero and the Hindu-Arabic numeral system were being used throughout Europe, especially in fields such as commerce, astronomy, and engineering. Accountants and merchants had discovered the usefulness of zero in bookkeeping and calculations, while scholars used it to advance mathematical theories. Though Roman numerals retained ceremonial use, the acceptance of zero signaled an important mathematical and philosophical shift, making it possible to conceive of innovations in science and technology that required a more comprehensive numerical framework.

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The Story of Alexander the Great, in 6 Facts

Mosaic of Alexander the Great

In 356 BCE, in the city of Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia, a baby boy was born to the king of Macedon, Philip II, and his fourth wife, Olympias. Philip celebrated the arrival of his first son and future heir, but not even the proud king could have imagined how far the boy, Alexander, would go.

King Philip II had already overseen the reformation of the Macedonian army, with the establishment of the phalanx infantry formation (a dense line of soldiers standing shoulder to shoulder) and the brutally effective use of long sarissa pikes and siege engines. But it was Alexander, who succeeded to the throne at just 20 years old following his father’s assassination, who took this fearsome force to a whole new level. He engaged in military campaigns against the Greeks and then the Persians, and in little over a decade had conquered most of the known world — all before his sudden death at age 32.

Here are six facts about Alexander III of Macedon, more commonly known as Alexander the Great, a man widely considered the greatest and most successful military commander in history.

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Aristotle Was Alexander’s Teacher

As the son of royalty and heir to the throne, Alexander was expected to receive a fine and princely education. But Alexander’s schooling went above and beyond: His teacher was none other than Aristotle, one of the greatest philosophers who ever lived. The famed scholar was summoned by King Philip II around 343 BCE, when Alexander was 13 years old. Aristotle tutored Alexander on a wide range of subjects, including philosophy, ethics, science, and the arts, in an attempt to create an enlightened monarch who would rule in a fair and just manner — something arguably lost on Alexander in later years, as his military leadership increasingly veered toward megalomania.

Alexander Was Never Defeated in Battle

Alexander succeeded to the throne in 336 BCE, and soon went to war, spending most of his reign engaged in lengthy military campaigns throughout Western Asia, Central Asia, parts of South Asia, and Egypt. Incredibly, Alexander was never defeated in battle, despite often being outnumbered. He won at least 20 major battles against significant military powers, including the Greek city-states, Egypt, and Persia. Not only was Alexander a masterful tactician and general, but he also inspired extreme loyalty among his soldiers, who refused his orders only once during the so-called Hyphasis Mutiny, when his exhausted men refused to march further into the Indian subcontinent.

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Alexander Founded Many Cities

During his reign, Alexander the Great conquered the Greek city-states and the mighty Persian Empire. In doing so, he created an empire that spanned three continents and covered about 2 million square miles. According to the ancient Greek philosopher Plutarch, Alexander also founded more than 70 cities, though modern historians place the number between 10 and 20. Many of these he named after himself, including Alexandria Troas in Turkey, Alexandria Arachosia and Alexandria Ariana in what is now Afghanistan, and, most notably, Alexandria, which is the second largest city in Egypt today.

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Bucephalus Was Alexander’s Faithful Warhorse

Bucephalus is one of the most famous horses from classical antiquity. According to Plutarch, the horse was given as a gift to Alexander's father, Philip II. But the animal was aggressive and unmanageable, and wouldn’t allow anyone to mount him. Seeing this, Alexander, just a boy at the time, asked permission to tame the horse, saying, “What an excellent horse do they lose, for want of address and boldness to manage him!” His elders laughed at him, but Alexander proved them wrong, managing to ride and ultimately tame the wild creature. Bucephalus became Alexander’s mount of choice and was with him throughout his campaigns. He held the horse in such high regard that he even named a city — Bucephala in modern-day Pakistan — in honor of his faithful steed.

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Alexander Took Huge Risks With His Own Life

One of the reasons Alexander inspired such devotion and sacrifice in his soldiers was his willingness to charge into battle on the front lines beside them. This, however, was a huge risk, and Alexander came close to death more than once. At the Battle of Granicus in 334 BCE, for example, Alexander was seconds away from receiving a fatal blow from a Persian soldier, only to be saved in the last moment by one of his companions, Cleitus the Black. Later, during the Indian campaign, Alexander received his most severe wound when an enemy arrow pierced his lung. Word soon spread that he had died, but Alexander survived. When he had fully recovered, he presented himself to his awaiting troops, to the cheers and even tears of his soldiers.

Alexander’s Death Is Shrouded in Mystery

The death of Alexander the Great remains one of history’s greatest mysteries. We know that Alexander, at the age of 32, fell ill during a days-long period of festivities, collapsing and complaining of a searing pain in his back. An intense fever followed, and he died 12 days later. From that moment up until the present day, the exact cause of his death has been a topic of much debate. Numerous theories have been proposed, including alcoholic liver disease, malaria, typhoid fever, and assassination by strychnine poisoning. While we might never know the truth about Alexander’s death, we could one day solve one of archaeology’s other great mysteries: the location of his tomb. Numerous theories exist regarding the tomb’s location, placing it anywhere from Egypt to Greece. It’s possible it was destroyed and will never be found — but that won’t stop archaeologists from searching for the final resting place of history’s greatest general.

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7 Roman Emperors Everyone Should Know

Bust of Augustus

Although Rome reached the pinnacle of its power and influence during the imperial era, which stretched from approximately 27 BCE to 476 CE, it wasn’t always easy for emperors during this period to run a tight ship. Not only did these imperial rulers endure threats from both hostile invaders and supposed allies who secretly plotted to gain power for themselves, but they also faced the myriad challenges of maintaining order among the disparate cultures of an empire that touched three continents and encompassed nearly 1.7 million square miles at its peak.

While some emperors succumbed to the pressures of the job and the temptation of corruption, others proved to have the vision and mettle to adjust as needed and propel the empire forward for the next generation. Here are seven Roman emperors who excelled in the role, helping ensure that the memory of Rome would endure for posterity.

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Augustus (27 BCE-14 CE)

Although Julius Caesar proclaimed himself supreme leader in the dying days of the Roman Republic, it was his grandnephew and adopted son Augustus who marked a new era as Rome’s first emperor. Rich from the spoils of victory over Cleopatra’s Egypt, Augustus embarked on a building program that included necessary projects such as new roads and aqueducts, as well as awe-inspiring marvels including the Temple of Apollo Palatinus and the Theater of Marcellus. He also founded a postal system, installed a police and firefighting force, and secured the ever-expanding empire’s borders by establishing a standing army. While his boast of having transformed Rome from a city of clay to one of marble was hyperbole, it’s no exaggeration to say that Augustus’ impressive 40-year rule kick-started the two-century period of prosperity known as the Pax Romana, or “Roman Peace.”

Vespasian (69-79 CE)

The end of Emperor Nero's controversial reign in 68 CE threatened to plunge the Roman Empire into further chaos, as a string of successors failed to establish stability in what became known as the "Year of the Four Emperors." Into that turbulence stepped Vespasian, who quelled the bloody uprisings that had accompanied him to the top and established the Flavian dynasty that endured for the next three decades. Known for his frugal ways — he once was allegedly pelted with turnips for his stinginess as proconsul of Africa — Vespasian unapologetically raised taxes to replenish the coffers that had been drained during Nero's rule. And while he used the cash to fund massive construction projects such as the Colosseum, the emperor also drew praise for showing restraint when it came to indulging in personal luxuries. Although his reign wasn't a particularly long one, Vespasian left enough of an impression that the Roman senator and historian Tacitus noted he was "the only emperor who had changed for the better."

Trajan (98-117 CE)

The second of the "Five Good Emperors" (along with Nerva, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius) that comprised the Nerva-Antonine dynasty that ruled from 96-180 CE, Trajan stakes a legitimate claim to being the greatest ruler of Rome's heyday. With his treasury bolstered by the conquest of Dacia (modern-day Romania), Trajan funneled the bounty toward the building of new roads, bridges, and aqueducts, as well as a magnificent forum with its towering Trajan's Column in the city of Rome. He also had the common sense to share the wealth with the people, and he was widely beloved for reducing taxes and expanding social welfare programs that included the "alimenta" for poor and orphaned children. Trajan continued his military campaigns through his final years, and by the end of his rule, Rome had expanded to the largest territory the empire ever saw. His accomplishments were of such magnitude that future emperors were inaugurated with the words, "Sis felicior Augusto, melior Traiano," meaning "May you be more fortunate than Augustus, and better than Trajan."

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Hadrian (117-138 CE)

It's tough to follow in the military footsteps of a warrior-king like Trajan, and to his credit, Hadrian didn't make much of an effort to do so. He instead focused on consolidating and strengthening the empire's borders, a strategy underscored by the construction of the 73-mile Hadrian's Wall across modern-day England, which is still standing today. Hadrian also commissioned major structures such as the Pantheon, codified Roman law with the creation of the Perpetual Edict, and was a devoted patron of the arts. Although he rankled some by embracing Greek culture and flouting his companionship with a Greek youth named Antinous, Hadrian's policies unquestionably kept the empire running at full throttle through the glory days of the second century CE.

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Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE)

A devotee of Stoicism, a Hellenistic school of philosophy emphasizing the pursuit of virtue, Marcus Aurelius is best remembered for the collection of self-reflections that comprise his famed work Meditations. Ironically, Rome's philosopher-king had little time to enjoy the inner peace he sought; his two-decade reign was marked by armed conflict with Parthians to the east and invading Germanic tribes from the north, as well as a devastating plague that wiped out millions of Roman citizens. Despite the hardships, Marcus Aurelius was largely successful at maintaining the prosperity forged by his predecessors. However, he also garners criticism from historians for passing the empire to his son Commodus, whose inept reign is considered to have brought an end to the Pax Romana.

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Diocletian (284-305 CE)

How does a floundering empire overcome the half-century of infighting and territorial loss that would later be coined the "Crisis of the Third Century"? By installing an emperor with the confidence to distribute power across its far-flung boundaries. Known as the tetrarchy, this system featured two senior leaders known as augusti and a pair of junior leaders called caesars who ostensibly ruled their respective jurisdictions, though Diocletian clearly held sway above the others. More of an administrative than a battlefield genius, Diocletian increased the size of Rome's army, doubled the number of provinces, separated the powers of civic and military personnel, and established a state budget based on tax revenue. Although the tetrarchy fizzled after his reign ended, the emperor's success at forging two decades of stability was exemplified by his peaceful retirement instead of a forced abdication or murderous coup.

Constantine (306-337 CE)

Amid the jousting for power that resumed with Diocletian's departure, Constantine the Great emerged to become one of the most transformative figures of the empire's lengthy history. Unlike his predecessors, who either barely tolerated Christians or outright persecuted them, Constantine wholeheartedly embraced the growing religion. He claimed to have seen the sign of the cross in the sky before the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312 CE, and the following year, he officially granted tolerance to Christians by issuing the Edict of Milan. After claiming sole control of the empire in 324 CE, Constantine moved his capital 850 miles east to the rebuilt city of Constantinople (formerly named Byzantium), and lured new residents with promises of free bread and citizenship. While Rome succumbed to invaders in 476 CE, the city built by its namesake continued to flourish as the Christian-populated seat of the Eastern Roman Empire for another millennium.

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What Did Ancient Romans Eat?

Ancient Roman feast

The mere mention of ancient Rome conjures up a multitude of powerful images: the assassination of Julius Caesar, legionaries marching in perfect unison, the alliance of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, gladiators fighting in the Colosseum. It was a time of power and conquest, of low scheming and high culture. It was also a time of feasting — something the Romans were known for, especially during Bacchanalia festivals, in which food and wine would flow with fervor. But what exactly did the Romans eat? Here are some of the most common foodstuffs that fed the hungry denizens of the Roman Empire.

Bread and Porridge

Cereal grains, particularly wheat and oatmeal, were part of almost every meal in ancient Rome. These grains were typically used to make bread, biscuits, or porridge, and were eaten by the common folk, the upper crust, and soldiers in the Roman army. Roman porridge recipes survive to this day, including one in Cato the Elder’s De Agri Cultura, a treatise on agriculture written around 160 BCE, which happens to be the oldest remaining complete work of prose in Latin. The simple recipe, which isn’t dissimilar to modern counterparts, suggests soaking wheat in boiling water before adding milk to create a thick gruel — a staple dish that anyone in Rome could have prepared.

Vegetables and Beans

Seasonally available and locally sourced vegetables and beans were often served as accompaniments to Roman meals. Common vegetables included lettuce, cabbage, turnips, and leeks, while wealthier Romans could afford asparagus, mushrooms, and artichokes. Legumes such as broad beans, chickpeas, and lentils also played an important role in the Roman diet, providing substantial amounts of calories, protein, calcium, and iron to a diet that wasn’t nearly as meat-heavy as our diets today. A recent study found that Roman gladiators were mostly vegetarian, eating primarily wheat, barley, and beans.

Fruits and Nuts

As the empire expanded, the Romans discovered and embraced many varieties of fruits and nuts. The humble apple tree, for example, was introduced to many parts of the world after the Romans found it growing in Syria. They also cultivated pears, plums, apricots, and figs, as well as nuts — which were considered expensive treats — including chestnuts, walnuts, almonds, pistachios, and hazelnuts. Then, of course, there were grapes, which were eaten fresh, or — more importantly — turned into wine. The Romans loved to drink wine, which they diluted with a little water. Drinking wine neat was considered uncivilized, but not as uncouth as drinking beer, which was seen as simply barbaric.

Milk and Cheese

The Romans did not typically drink milk, and doing so was largely frowned upon. They saw excessive milk drinking as evidence of barbarism, and even considered butter fit only for treating burns. (The Romans believed their ubiquitous olive oil to be far superior for cooking purposes.) They did, however, use goat and sheep milk to make cheese. Many farms produced cheese, and some wealthier homes had dedicated cheese kitchens. Roman soldiers were also familiar with the cheese-making process, including the use of rennet, and could produce the food while deployed abroad. The Roman author Pliny the Elder was indignant when considering the lack of cheese-making in what he saw as lesser civilizations, writing, “It is a remarkable circumstance, that the barbarous nations which subsist on milk have been for so many ages either ignorant of the merits of cheese, or else have totally disregarded it.”

Meat and Fish

Meat and fish were both considered luxuries in ancient Rome, and were primarily reserved for wealthier citizens. Pork was the most common meat, either cooked fresh (stewed or roasted) or turned into bacon. Fresh fish and seafood included tuna, eels, sea urchins, and other shellfish. During feasts, wealthy Romans sometimes ramped up their culinary creations to a whole different level. Dishes served at these extravagant events included pickled sow’s udders, stuffed dormice, bull’s testicles, and hares decorated with wings to resemble Pegasus.

Garum

Special mention has to go to one standout ingredient of ancient Roman cuisine: a fermented fish sauce called garum. Pliny the Elder described garum as “a choice liquor consisting of the guts of fish and the other parts that would otherwise be considered refuse.” Despite this unappetizing appraisal, he nonetheless called it an “exquisite liquid.” The Romans mass-produced garum in dedicated factories. Three common varieties were manufactured: a dark-colored condiment that was high in protein, a cooking sauce similar to Vietnamese fish sauces, and a milder version called muria. Roman diners sprinkled garum on all manner of savory dishes, providing a pungent umami to even the blandest of meals.

Roman Desserts

Sweet-toothed Romans, especially those with money to spend, could indulge in a variety of desserts. Baked goods such as honey cakes and fruit tarts were common, as were homemade sweets known as dulcia domestica, which included stuffed dates. One common dessert eaten throughout Roman society was libum, a type of honey cheesecake. Libum wasn’t only a tasty treat; it was traditionally made as an offering to the household gods, after which it could be enjoyed by all the family.

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5 Inventions You Didn’t Realize Came From Ancient Rome

Codex-style book

In 500 BCE, Rome was nothing more than a minor city-state on the Italian Peninsula. But with its eyes set on expansion, Rome began to conquer its neighbors until it controlled all of Italy. It didn’t stop there. It became an empire in 27 BCE, and at its height — around 100 CE — the vast and immensely powerful Roman Empire stretched from Britain to Egypt.

Rome’s influence on the world was both widespread and long-lasting. The Romans were great innovators and inventors, sometimes appropriating and advancing aspects from other cultures, and other times inventing entirely new technologies and systems. These innovations covered a wide range of fields, including state institutions, cultural practices, and engineering techniques.

The Roman Empire eventually fell in 476 CE, but its legacy and influence carried on — all the way to the present day. Some of Rome’s most famous innovations, such as sanitation systems and road networks, are well known and still very much in evidence; in the United Kingdom, for example, many modern roads still follow the routes laid down by the Romans. Other Roman innovations, however, are more obscure. Here are five inventions that continue to shape our modern world, but that many people don’t realize originated in ancient Rome.

The First Bound Books

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In the ancient world, the first written documents were typically recorded on clay or wax tablets, or on sheets or scrolls of papyrus. The Romans also used scrolls, but during the first and second centuries CE, a new form of storing and accessing information emerged: the codex-style book. These notebooks, known as pugillares membranei (roughly translating to “parchment book”), were formed by stacking pages — typically made of vellum or papyrus — that were then joined along one set of edges, much like modern books. They were mainly used for personal writing, and represent the first true form of the bound book. The codices soon became popular throughout Western Europe and the Middle East, eventually superseding scrolls and tablets.

Precision Medical Instruments

The Romans were great pioneers in the field of surgery. We know from archaeological evidence — including well-preserved artifacts found in the buried remains of Pompeii and Herculaneum — that the Romans used precision medical instruments including bone forceps, catheters, obstetrical hooks, scalpels, and surgical scissors. The level of technology found in some of these tools is not so far from their modern counterparts. The Roman version of the vaginal speculum, for example, did not change significantly until the 20th century. The Romans also had a medical military corps with specialized field surgeons who were tasked with keeping the legions fit, healthy, and alive.

Underfloor Heating

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Heated floors might seem like a modern luxury, but the Romans started using them 2,000 years ago. Ancient Romans used an underfloor heating system known as a hypocaust, which drew in hot air from a wood-burning furnace outside the house and channeled it into a chamber below the floor. This not only warmed the floor itself but radiated heat throughout the home. Many examples of hypocausts can still be found in the foundations of villas and townhouses in Roman centers in Germany and England, where cold winters would have made the toasty floors especially inviting.

The Shopping Mall

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Markets have long been prevalent throughout the world as a gathering place for people to sell and buy all sorts of goods and produce. But the first permanent and covered shopping mall was likely built by the Romans: Trajan's Market (Mercatus Traiani), constructed between 100 and 110 CE. Made of red brick and concrete, it had six levels that housed around 150 different shops, as well as government offices and living accommodations. A street on the upper level, meanwhile, was named Via Biberatica after the Latin word for “drink,” suggesting that even the Romans needed to unwind after a hard day’s shopping.

Our Calendar

Most of the world now uses the Gregorian calendar, first introduced in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII. But credit for the modern calendar should really be given to the Romans. The Gregorian calendar is based on the much earlier Julian calendar (which itself owed a lot to the Egyptian solar calendar), introduced by Julius Caesar in 45 BCE. The calendars share many similarities, though one of the main differences is the treatment of those pesky leap years. The Gregorian calendar handles them more precisely, resulting in a discrepancy between the two calendars that is currently 13 days, and will become 14 days in 2100.

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These Are the Oldest Recorded Recipes

Cuneiform tablet

Determining the oldest recipe in history seems like it would be tricky right from the outset — anyone who’s ever asked an older relative for a recipe knows that often, the ingredients and instructions for a favorite meal have never even been written down. Yet historians do have a fairly clear answer for what the oldest known written culinary recipes are, and they date back more than 3,700 years.

In 1911, Yale University purchased four clay tablets that had been unearthed from Mesopotamia, the ancient valley between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates (around modern-day Iraq). The tablets were inscribed in the cuneiform Akkadian language, and scholars estimate that three of them date back to around 1730 BCE. Since Akkadian is an extinct language, the actual content of the cuneiform was a mystery at the time the university acquired the tablets. It wasn’t until 1933 that any conclusions were made as to the contents of the script — and even then, the curator of the Yale Babylonian Collection misinterpreted the texts as recipes for medicinal remedies.

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Was the Trojan Horse Real?

Trojan Horse procession

The myths and history handed down from the ancient Greeks still permeate our culture today, from idioms such as “the Midas touch” and “Achilles’ heel” to the name of the world’s largest online retailer. Many of the legends recount the actions of Odysseus, the king of Ithaca and the hero of Homer’s epic poems the “Iliad” and the “Odyssey.” It’s believed these stories originated as oral performances and were committed to parchment in the eighth or mid-seventh century BCE. But there’s much that remains mysterious about Homer’s epics (including the very existence of Homer himself). One of the most iconic stories of the “Iliad” is that of the Trojan Horse, a tale so well known that the term is still used today to describe clever trickery that breaches defenses. Yet the question remains: Did the incident ever really happen?

We Now Know the City of Troy Was Real

Homer’s “Iliad” richly details the story of a decade-long siege against the city of Troy and its king, Priam, led by Menelaus, king of Sparta, and Menelaus’ brother Agamemnon, king of Mycenae. In the story, the conflict is fought over Menelaus’ wife, Helen (famously described by poet Christopher Marlowe as having a “face that launch’d a thousand ships”), who was given to Priam’s son Paris by the goddess Aphrodite.

Ancient scholars, including Herodotus, the fifth-century BCE Greek historian often called the “father of history,” firmly believed that the Trojan War had occurred some 800 years before classical Greece. But over the years, the common belief became that both the war and the city of Troy itself were the stuff of fiction. That skepticism was finally put to rest in the 19th century, after German amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann discovered a late Bronze Age mound now known as Hisarlik, in the northwest corner of modern-day Turkey. Excavations uncovered fortifications, pottery, and treasures from the site, which is now generally accepted to be the location of ancient Troy, putting the mythical city back on the map.

The existence of Troy raises the question: What else in Homer’s myth is real? Did the Trojan War actually happen? While proof of that great siege is more difficult to come by, there is evidence to suggest the Trojan War, which is said to have taken place around the 12th century BCE, was also a real conflict. Cuneiform tablets from the Hittite civilization reference a war with details that follow the rough outline of Homer’s battling empires. What’s more, charred arrowheads and unburied skeletons found in later archaeological excavations suggest that a large and violent conflict took place within the city’s walls, though there’s no knowing for certain if it was the 10-year Trojan War described in Homer’s epic.

What Is the Story of the Trojan Horse?

According to accounts by Homer in the “Odyssey” — later expanded on by the Roman poet Virgil in the “Aeneid” — the siege against Troy had been grinding on for nearly 10 years when Odysseus hatched a scheme to construct a giant wooden horse on wheels (the horse being a symbol of Troy) to sneak Greek soldiers behind the city walls. According to the plan, the Greek army would appear to flee, abandoning the equine structure as a peace offering and a symbol of surrender. The hollow structure, however — described in Virgil’s “Aeneid” as “a horse of mountainous size” — would conceal soldiers hidden inside — as Virgil put it, to “secretly hide a picked body of men, chosen by lot, there, in the dark body, filling the belly and the huge cavernous insides with armed warriors.” This trickery would allow Odysseus’ soldiers to get past the gates and sack the fortress, finally defeating their Trojan foes. The ruse worked, according to the legend. The city of Troy fell, and Odysseus sailed away to begin his long journey home.

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So Was the Trojan Horse Real?

The tale of the Trojan Horse has been recounted countless times — including with a giant rabbit in the film Monty Python and the Holy Grail — and a wooden replica used in the 2004 film Troy now stands in Çanakkale, Turkey, near the site of ancient Troy. The timely legend even sparked the saying, “Beware of Greeks bearing gifts.” Yet historians still aren’t certain whether the story is factual or, more likely, an elaborate myth with some roots in reality. Some have theorized that the horse was a metaphor for whatever did destroy the city of Troy, such as a natural disaster or an enemy ship. But the prevailing theory is that the clever structure may have been based on ancient siege engines, such as battering rams, which were often covered with wet horse hides. The damp hides helped protect the wooden siege engines (and the soldiers using them) from flaming arrows, which may have been the inspiration for the legendary ruse.

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