Strange Workplace Etiquette of the 1960s

1960s workplace — Harold M. Lambert/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

Author Nicole Villeneuve

July 18, 2024

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The 1960s were a decade of profound social change in the U.S., as movements for civil rights and gender equality gained momentum across the country. While the standard American workplace was not immune to these changes, etiquette on the job still tended to reflect postwar traditionalism and formality. In offices of all kinds, people were expected to dress up and respect their superiors. Women held lower positions that didn’t pay nearly as much as men’s roles, racial diversity was sorely lacking, and behaviors that are now considered unhealthy and unprofessional could be everyday occurrences on the job. Here are some of the more surprising aspects of workplace etiquette during the 1960s.

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Smoking at the Office

Today, the thought of people puffing away on cigarettes at their desks seems too bizarre to have ever been the norm. But in the 1960s, approximately 42% of American adults were smokers. The habit was common at just about every workplace, and it was normal to see smoke filling the air and full ashtrays not only in business offices, but also in hospital halls, airplanes, and more. In 1964, the U.S. Surgeon General released its first report on smoking and health, definitively linking cigarette smoke with dangerous health problems. Smoking nonetheless remained ubiquitous in the workplace throughout the 1960s and for decades to follow, until most U.S. workplaces banned the practice in the 1990s and early 2000s.

Imbibing on the Job

As depicted in the hit TV series Mad Men, it was common to see well-stocked bar carts or bottles of spirits tucked into desk drawers in the 1960s. It was also common for executives at big-city advertising agencies and corporate firms to head to nearby bars for what became known as a “three martini lunch.” After a leisurely, booze-soaked break, the execs would put in a little more time at the office before heading back to the bar with co-workers for more cocktails after work.

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Formal Attire

After World War II, many women started to incorporate more leisurely attire, such as pants, into their day-to-day wardrobe. But in the workplace, dresses and skirts — with stockings — were still preferred in the 1960s. Men dressed in suits and ties, but the silhouette became sleeker as bulky, sloped shoulders went out of style. Despite the decade’s fashion formalities, the idea of “casual Friday” also has its roots in the 1960s workplace. In Hawaii, the president of the Hawaiian Fashion Guild encouraged state politicians to wear Hawaiian shirts to work as a way to promote the local garment industry. The “Aloha Friday” trend had taken off in the state by the late 1960s, but trickled into the U.S. mainland more slowly, gaining widespread adoption in the 1990s.

Office Hierarchy

Workplaces in the 1960s adhered to formal hierarchies. There were clear distinctions between management and employees — often physically, with managers in private offices and employees in rooms where desks were placed side by side like a factory line. Communication was direct, usually in person, and people often used titles and surnames when addressing colleagues or superiors. In the early ’60s, cubicles were also introduced to office-based workplaces as a flexible “Action Office” concept designed by Herman Miller. It was a major departure from the traditional office layout, giving employees a more personalized experience.

How Did Humans Survive the Ice Age?

Depiction of ice age people — Credit: Esteban De Armas/ Alamy Stock Photo

Author Tony Dunnell

July 11, 2024

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Earth has experienced at least five significant ice ages in its history — periods in which colder global temperatures caused glaciers to expand across the planet’s surface. Homo sapiens, which emerged about 300,000 years ago in Africa, survived two such ice ages. The most recent, known as the Last Glacial Period, or simply the “last ice age,” occurred between 120,000 and 11,500 years ago. It reached peak conditions between 24,000 and 21,000 years ago, in a period known as the Last Glacial Maximum, when vast ice sheets covered North America and northern Europe.

At that point, Homo sapiens had already spread around the world. Many of our ancestors, therefore, found themselves in a survival situation during the frigid ice age, along with animals such as brown bears, caribou, and wolves — as well as large animals known as megafauna. These impressive creatures included woolly mammoths, mastodons, and saber-toothed cats — all of which went extinct during the last ice age.

How, then, did humans survive? It was no easy task, for sure, but our ancestors were highly adaptable. Here’s how humans not only managed to survive the last ice age, but also emerged as the most dominant species on Earth.

Weatherproof Shelters

Contrary to the popular image of ice age humans — or “cavemen” — living in deep caves, our ancestors were more likely to have built sturdy rock shelters. While these shelters often made use of natural features, such as a depression in a cliff face, early humans would also have made extensive modifications to further weatherproof their shelters, such as draping large animal hides from overhangs to block out the bitter winds. With a warm fire blazing inside, these shelters provided ample protection from the cold. In the brief but slightly warmer summer months, when hunters moved out onto the open plains, they built dome-shaped huts or tents out of mammoth bones, which were then covered with animal skins.

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Warm Clothing

Unsurprisingly, warm clothing was absolutely vital to survival in the ice age. While humans might have once worn rudimentary, loose-fitting animal hides, such clothing would not have been adequate in freezing temperatures. Thankfully, about 30,000 years ago, our ancestors developed what anthropologist Brian Fagan called the most important invention in human history: the needle. Carved out of ivory or bone, with tiny eyes bored through by a fine-pointed flint drill, these ice age needles would be instantly recognizable today. They allowed for the manufacture of tight-fitting clothing that was tailored to the individual and often sewn together in layers, providing effective protection from the cold.

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Innovative Tools

Needles weren’t the only innovation that helped humans survive the ice age. As part of their adaptation, Homo sapiens improved upon existing tools, some of which had been used by the Neanderthals, while also creating new innovations in toolmaking and weaponry. One of the most important tools created during the ice age was the burin, a type of rock chisel used to cut grooves and notches into materials such as bones and antlers, allowing for the creation of intricate and lightweight spearheads and harpoon tips. Not only did this mark one of the first instances of detachable and interchangeable technology — known as compound tools — but it was also the first time that tools had been developed exclusively for making other tools.

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Language and Art

Scientists suggest that Homo erectus, an extinct early human species, may have used a primitive form of conversation, or protolanguage, when it walked the Earth some 2 million years ago. Fast-forward to the last ice age, and members of Homo sapiens were most definitely talking among themselves. Language was arguably as important as anything else when it came to surviving the ice age. It allowed humans to share knowledge, whether regarding new technology, edible plants, or animal migrations. And through spoken language, as well as symbolic activities such as rituals, personal adornments, and art (the cave paintings at sites such as Lascaux in France, for example), our ancestors created a shared sense of social identity. This, in turn, allowed them to band together and forge connections beyond their immediate communities. By collaborating, early humans had a far greater chance of surviving the extremes of the ice age — and, ultimately, they came out stronger than ever before.

5 Historical Myths That Won’t Go Away

Stonehenge — Credit: Bettmann via Getty Images

Author Timothy Ott

July 11, 2024

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Part of the problem with examining history is the reliance on what can be scant documentation of famous figures, events, or civilizations. Whether culled from the writings of a royal scribe or an observer’s journal, these sources are often biased or misinformed, resulting in historical inaccuracies that can persist through the ages.

Thankfully, we live in an age when technology can help correct some of the fallacies, and easy access to information can both dispel misconceptions and foster further understanding of the events of yesteryear. But while some long-held myths have more recently been dismissed — we’re looking at you, Columbus — others continue to hold sway over the populace. Here are five historical myths that stubbornly persist despite the data that debunks them.

Myth: Stonehenge Was Built by Druids

So much about Stonehenge remains a mystery, from how its collection of bluestones were seemingly transported from hundreds of miles away to exactly why this famed monument was built. As such, it would seem appropriate that the druids, themselves a mysterious sect of Celtic priests, were responsible for the formation of what may have been a religious site. However, it’s likely a myth that the druids built Stonehenge. It turns out the idea was fostered by British antiquarians John Aubrey and William Stukeley in the 17th and 18th centuries, leading to a modern-day revival of druidry and the annual gathering of its practitioners at Stonehenge for the summer solstice. While it’s unknown when the original druids first appeared, there are no records of their existence until around the first century BCE. Meanwhile, archaeological dating has shown that Stonehenge was constructed in several stages thousands of years earlier, between 3000 and 1500 BCE, making it highly unlikely that these shadowy shamans were involved.

Myth: Nero Played the Fiddle While Rome Burned

Strictly speaking, the Roman Emperor Nero couldn't possibly have fiddled while a conflagration swept through much of the city in 64 CE, simply because the instrument wasn’t invented for another 1,000 years. Beyond that, there are other problems with the common narrative of Nero being indifferent to or even rejoicing in the suffering of his subjects. The myth largely stems from the writings of Roman historians Tacitus, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio, which describe how the theatrically inclined emperor recited a poem about the fall of Troy as he watched the flames from a safe distance. However, these accounts were all compiled well after the subject’s death, and Tacitus even acknowledges that this event was only alleged to have happened.

Meanwhile, records show that Nero responded to the emergency by providing food and shelter for the homeless and enacting new building codes, which hardly sounds like the acts of a callous tyrant. While the emperor didn't help his reputation by ordering the construction of a lavish palace across a large swath of the destroyed real estate, the characterization of his flippant reaction to the disaster is likely closer to exaggeration than truth.

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Myth: The Vikings Wore Horned Helmets

As with many historical myths, we can thank Hollywood for this particular misconception, as popular films helped perpetuate the image of horned-helmet-clad Vikings looting and pillaging their way across Europe. And yet the common depiction of these seafaring Scandinavian troublemakers goes back even further, to the initial staged performances of Richard Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen operas in the late 19th century. In reality, the only extant helmet found in Scandinavia and confirmed to be from the Viking era, which covered the ninth through 11th centuries, has no protuberances. Two other horned helmets, unearthed from a bog in Denmark in 1942, have since been found to predate the Vikings by two millennia, and were more likely used for ceremonial purposes than for protection in combat.

Myth: Magellan Was the First Person to Circumnavigate the World

Ferdinand Magellan indeed changed the course of human history with his quest to find a westward route from Spain to Indonesia's Spice Islands (present-day Maluku Islands). Yet he didn't come close to completing the global odyssey he still gets credit for today. The Portuguese explorer only made it as far as the Philippines, where he was killed in April 1521 after an ill-fated attempt at the forced subjugation of a local tribal chief. Just over 17 months later, the largely forgotten Spanish navigator Juan Sebastián Elcano captained the expedition’s sole remaining ship, with a mere 18 of its original 260 sailors, back to Spain to complete the circumnavigation. And yet, even they may not have been the first to accomplish the task. Some historians believe that honor goes to an enslaved man named Enrique, who was either purchased or captured during Magellan's earlier trip to Malaysia, and possibly returned to his homeland, just 1,200 miles away, after abandoning the European crew in the nearby Philippines. If he indeed made it back to Malaysia, he would have circled the entire globe.

Myth: Enslaved People Built the Egyptian Pyramids

Thanks in large part to the writings of the fifth-century Greek historian Herodotus, and the influential imagery of Hollywood films such as The Ten Commandments, it's been widely accepted that enslaved people undertook the backbreaking task of constructing the Giza pyramids for the ancient pharaohs of Egypt. Yet a series of excavations begun in the late 20th century around the Giza plateau provided ample evidence that the scale of forced labor has been grossly exaggerated. Among the discoveries were the remains of vast quantities of meat and fish in a nearby port city; graffiti revealing nicknames for various labor crews; and the skeletons of workers buried with jars of beer and bread for the afterlife, all of which suggest they were treated as paid workers rather than enslaved labor. That said, questions remain about the social hierarchies that may have driven less privileged individuals to partake in what was unquestionably a difficult job.

Did King Arthur Really Exist?

King Arthur circa 530 CE — Credit: Hulton Archive/ Hulton Royals Collection via Getty Images

Author Kristina Wright

July 11, 2024

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According to legend, King Arthur of Camelot was a heroic leader who lived in England from the late fifth century to the early sixth century. Stories of Arthur, his court at Camelot, and his Knights of the Round Table are at the heart of a collection of medieval literature known as the Matter of Britain, which portrays Arthur as a brave and loyal king who led the Britons in battle against Saxon invaders during the sixth century. Though there is a tremendous body of work about King Arthur, historians have debated for centuries whether this medieval figure ever really existed.

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No Reliable Historic Record of King Arthur Exists

Despite the prevalence of Arthurian tales, particularly ones written from the 12th century on, no contemporary evidence has been found from the period in which King Arthur is said to have lived. The earliest references to Arthur first appeared in Welsh and Breton folklore and poetry, but they were not contemporary to the events they described. “Y Gododdin,” a seventh-century Welsh poem, lists one warrior’s many admirable traits before concluding, “although he was not Arthur.” Scholars suggest this reference points to a legendary warrior named Arthur who was well known in the seventh century, but that doesn’t prove that said hero was a real person.

A sixth-century historical account of Britain by a Welsh monk named Gildas is the only surviving source from Arthur’s time that references a powerful British leader who could plausibly be the hero of legend. In the account, titled De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae (On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain), Gildas attributes the success of the Battle of Mons Badonicus, reportedly fought around 500 CE, to a British commander, but he does not name the conquering hero. The only commander Gildas references by name in his work is Ambrosius Aurelianus, a real Romano-British warrior who fought for the Saxons in the fifth century.

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The Line Between Fact and Fiction Is Blurry

Medieval histories often merged fact and fiction, so references to Arthur in historical records aren’t necessarily a confirmation of his existence. It was common practice at the time to embellish true events, which could mean altering names, adding characters, exaggerating a hero’s accomplishments, and even including magical elements to enhance the story. Some Arthurian texts were even labeled as a “history of,” which further blurred the distinction between historical fact and romanticized fiction.

References to Arthur appear in various medieval historical sources, including the ninth-century Historia Brittonum (History of the Britons) and the late-10th-century Annales Cambriae (Annals of Wales). The former, written by the Welsh cleric Nennius, lists 12 battles presumably fought by Arthur, but its historical accuracy is up for debate. Some scholars argue that the battles may be a compilation of various conflicts involving different leaders rather than a single person’s achievements. Both Annales Cambriae and Historia Brittonum mention Arthur’s victory at Mons Badonicus, though their works came centuries after Gildas’ reference to an unnamed commander, and may have been influenced by literary accounts of Arthur.

In 1136, Welsh cleric Geoffrey of Monmouth penned one of the most famous Arthurian texts, Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain). Geoffrey claimed to have traced the history of Britain back to its founding by Trojan exiles and wove a captivating saga of the rulers of Britain from the mythical first king, Brutus of Troy, in 12th century BCE, to the Welsh king Cadwaladr, in the seventh century. Although his tales have helped shape Arthurian legend as we know it today, including fantastical elements such as Merlin the wizard and the magical sword Excalibur, his account is largely dismissed as fictional.

Arthur May Have Come From Celtic Mythology

In the absence of any evidence that Arthur was a real historical figure, some scholars suspect he may have evolved from stories of a Celtic bear god. This theory is supported by the possible origins of the name Arthur, which may be derived from the Celtic artos, meaning “bear.” In Celtic mythology, the bear is a symbol of strength and leadership, qualities often attributed to the legendary king.

Other theories suggest that King Arthur may have been based on several historical figures who lived during the period following the Roman withdrawal from Britain. Arthur may have been inspired by the real Romano-British leaders who fought against Saxon invaders, including Aurelianus and Vortigern, or the character could be a composite of several warlords from that era. None of these identifications has ever been found conclusive, however — although Aurelianus’ nickname was “Bear” because his military tunic was made from a bear pelt, and some theorize the stories of Arthur evolved from Aurelianus.

No Archaeological Evidence of Arthur Has Been Found

On top of the lack of historical record, there is also no definitive archaeological evidence that links any historical figure to the Arthurian tales. Some real historic sites, such as Tintagel Castle in Cornwall, England, where Arthur is said to have been conceived, have been associated with the legend. But while excavations at these sites have uncovered artifacts from the time period that corresponds with the stories of Arthur, no physical proof of his existence has been found. And some places mentioned in Arthurian legend, such as the location of the Battle of Mons Badonicus (also known as Mount Badon), remain unknown, even though contemporary historians believe they were real sites.

The Legend of King Arthur Lives On

Though Arthurian literature continued to expand and thrive throughout the Middle Ages, the themes, events, and characters varied widely from text to text, so there is no single canonical version of Arthur’s story. The stories of King Arthur and his realm experienced a resurgence in popularity in Victorian-era England, adding depth and breadth to the legend. Thanks to countless literary works and adaptations for theater, film, television, and other media, the legend remains familiar to this day — regardless of whether a real King Arthur ever existed.

What Did Ancient Romans Eat?

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Author Tony Dunnell

July 3, 2024

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The mere mention of ancient Rome conjures up a multitude of powerful images: the assassination of Julius Caesar, legionaries marching in perfect unison, the alliance of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, gladiators fighting in the Colosseum. It was a time of power and conquest, of low scheming and high culture. It was also a time of feasting — something the Romans were known for, especially during Bacchanalia festivals, in which food and wine would flow with fervor. But what exactly did the Romans eat? Here are some of the most common foodstuffs that fed the hungry denizens of the Roman Empire.

Bread and Porridge

Cereal grains, particularly wheat and oatmeal, were part of almost every meal in ancient Rome. These grains were typically used to make bread, biscuits, or porridge, and were eaten by the common folk, the upper crust, and soldiers in the Roman army. Roman porridge recipes survive to this day, including one in Cato the Elder’s De Agri Cultura, a treatise on agriculture written around 160 BCE, which happens to be the oldest remaining complete work of prose in Latin. The simple recipe, which isn’t dissimilar to modern counterparts, suggests soaking wheat in boiling water before adding milk to create a thick gruel — a staple dish that anyone in Rome could have prepared.

Vegetables and Beans

Seasonally available and locally sourced vegetables and beans were often served as accompaniments to Roman meals. Common vegetables included lettuce, cabbage, turnips, and leeks, while wealthier Romans could afford asparagus, mushrooms, and artichokes. Legumes such as broad beans, chickpeas, and lentils also played an important role in the Roman diet, providing substantial amounts of calories, protein, calcium, and iron to a diet that wasn’t nearly as meat-heavy as our diets today. A recent study found that Roman gladiators were mostly vegetarian, eating primarily wheat, barley, and beans.

Fruits and Nuts

As the empire expanded, the Romans discovered and embraced many varieties of fruits and nuts. The humble apple tree, for example, was introduced to many parts of the world after the Romans found it growing in Syria. They also cultivated pears, plums, apricots, and figs, as well as nuts — which were considered expensive treats — including chestnuts, walnuts, almonds, pistachios, and hazelnuts. Then, of course, there were grapes, which were eaten fresh, or — more importantly — turned into wine. The Romans loved to drink wine, which they diluted with a little water. Drinking wine neat was considered uncivilized, but not as uncouth as drinking beer, which was seen as simply barbaric.

Milk and Cheese

The Romans did not typically drink milk, and doing so was largely frowned upon. They saw excessive milk drinking as evidence of barbarism, and even considered butter fit only for treating burns. (The Romans believed their ubiquitous olive oil to be far superior for cooking purposes.) They did, however, use goat and sheep milk to make cheese. Many farms produced cheese, and some wealthier homes had dedicated cheese kitchens. Roman soldiers were also familiar with the cheese-making process, including the use of rennet, and could produce the food while deployed abroad. The Roman author Pliny the Elder was indignant when considering the lack of cheese-making in what he saw as lesser civilizations, writing, “It is a remarkable circumstance, that the barbarous nations which subsist on milk have been for so many ages either ignorant of the merits of cheese, or else have totally disregarded it.”

Meat and Fish

Meat and fish were both considered luxuries in ancient Rome, and were primarily reserved for wealthier citizens. Pork was the most common meat, either cooked fresh (stewed or roasted) or turned into bacon. Fresh fish and seafood included tuna, eels, sea urchins, and other shellfish. During feasts, wealthy Romans sometimes ramped up their culinary creations to a whole different level. Dishes served at these extravagant events included pickled sow’s udders, stuffed dormice, bull’s testicles, and hares decorated with wings to resemble Pegasus.

Garum

Special mention has to go to one standout ingredient of ancient Roman cuisine: a fermented fish sauce called garum. Pliny the Elder described garum as “a choice liquor consisting of the guts of fish and the other parts that would otherwise be considered refuse.” Despite this unappetizing appraisal, he nonetheless called it an “exquisite liquid.” The Romans mass-produced garum in dedicated factories. Three common varieties were manufactured: a dark-colored condiment that was high in protein, a cooking sauce similar to Vietnamese fish sauces, and a milder version called muria. Roman diners sprinkled garum on all manner of savory dishes, providing a pungent umami to even the blandest of meals.

Roman Desserts

Sweet-toothed Romans, especially those with money to spend, could indulge in a variety of desserts. Baked goods such as honey cakes and fruit tarts were common, as were homemade sweets known as dulcia domestica, which included stuffed dates. One common dessert eaten throughout Roman society was libum, a type of honey cheesecake. Libum wasn’t only a tasty treat; it was traditionally made as an offering to the household gods, after which it could be enjoyed by all the family.

Once-Popular Baby Names You Never See Anymore

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Author Kristina Wright

June 27, 2024

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Much like fashion, the cyclical nature of baby names is influenced not only by cultural shifts, but also by historical events and popular media. For instance, in 1931, the name Bella was ranked No. 985 in the top 1,000 female names by the Social Security Administration, which uses Social Security card application data to determine the popularity of names, before falling off the list entirely for 69 years. We can’t be sure why the name made the list again in the year 2000, coming in at No. 749, but its rapid rise in popularity from there can be attributed to Bella Swan, the central character in Stephenie Meyer’s Twilight series, published between 2005 and 2008. Bella jumped in popularity to No. 122 in 2008, then to No. 58 the following year and No. 48 in 2010. The name remained on the list of the top 100 most popular female names through 2022, a trend bolstered by the film adaptations of the Twilight books.

While some popular names fade away only to come surging back many years later, others are perennial favorites decade after decade. Michael has been the No. 1 most popular male name for 44 of the past 100 years. On the female names list, Mary has taken the top spot 32 times and ranks as the overall most popular name of the past 100 years, despite falling as low as No. 135 over the years. The name James maintains the top spot for the most popular male name of the past century, though it has ranked as low as No. 19.

Old-fashioned names such as Harriet and Amos may make us think of our grandparents and a bygone era, but there is always a chance they’ll make a trendy comeback alongside more contemporary names such as Onyx, Anakin, and Nova (some of the top baby names in 2024). Here is a nostalgic look at eight vintage baby names that were once widely popular but have faded in use — at least for now.

Doris

Doris just squeaks onto the list of the 100 most popular names of the past 100 years at No. 98, despite the fact that it never cracked the top five in any year of the past century. Peaking at No. 6 in 1929, Doris didn’t even make the top 1,000 names in 2023. Doris Day, born Doris Kappelhoff in 1922, is arguably the most famous Doris of the past century. A popular singer and actress in the 1950s and ’60s, her wholesome girl-next-door image contrasted with the cultural shifts of the 1960s, which may account for the name’s decreasing popularity in the decades since.

Albert

Albert is an example of a male name that seems old-fashioned and outdated in the U.S., but is still going strong in the U.K. This might have something to do with the number of royals who have had the name — in the past 200 years, there have been 12 members of the British royal family named Albert. The popularity of Albert peaked in the U.S. in 1910, when it was the 14th most popular male name. It ranked at No. 590 in 2023 in the U.S., while in the U.K., Albert ranked 76th on the list of the top 100 names for boys in 2024.

Judith

Some old-fashioned names have never scored high on the popularity lists, but still consistently ranked in the top 50 or top 100 names for several decades. In a list of the top five female names in each year of the last century, Judith appears only once, as the fourth most popular name in 1940. Yet it was one of the top 50 most popular female names between 1936 and 1956. In overall rankings, Judith comes in at No. 62 in a list of the 100 top female names of the past century, but most of that popularity came in the first half of the century; the name hasn’t cracked the top 100 since the 1960s.

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Ernest

The name Ernest has had a long and popular history in the U.S., peaking at No. 21 on the list of the 1,000 most popular male names in 1885. It stayed in the top 100 until 1957 before a slow but steady drop saw it falling off the top 1,000 list entirely by 2019. Despite the name’s literary connections, including Ernest Hemingway and Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest, the decline of Ernest might have been due to its association with the fictional character Ernest P. Worrell, played by actor Jim Varney. Varney’s bumbling slapstick humor in television commercials, a TV series, and several feature films made the character a household name — though not one that parents wanted to give their babies.

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Mildred

In 1920, Mildred was the sixth most popular female name in the United States, but by 1985 it wasn’t even in the top 1,000. Mildred Pierce, a 1941 novel by James M. Cain that was adapted for film in 1945, may have helped sustain the name’s popularity well into the 1950s before it began a steady downward trend. While this old-fashioned name doesn’t seem poised for a comeback, the diminutive Millie ranked as the 102nd most popular female name in 2023 — its highest rank ever, thanks to the popularity of British actress Millie Bobby Brown.

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Ralph

From 1900 to 1963, Ralph consistently remained on the list of the top 100 most popular male names, peaking at No. 21 in 1917. From there, it drifted further and further down the list before making its final appearance in 2018 at No. 950. The decline in the name’s popularity likely had something to do with the unfortunate fact that the word “ralph” became a U.S. slang term for vomit in the mid-1960s.

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Gertrude

Despite being the 23rd most popular female name in 1900 and staying in the top 100 until 1930, the name Gertrude completely vanished from the top 1,000 names after 1965. The sharp decline of this old-fashioned name likely followed the same trajectory of Doris, falling out of favor as the cultural revolution swept the country, and names such as Lisa, Kimberly, and Michelle rose in popularity.

Virgil

The name Virgil is best known as the English name of Publius Vergilius Maro, the influential first-century Roman poet who penned the epic Aeneid. While the name has never been high on the list of the most popular male names, it cracked the top 100 names five times in the early 1900s and stayed in the top 500 until the mid-1970s. Virgil made its final appearance on the list of the top 1,000 male names in 1991 at No. 861, and some trend-watchers suggest it’s due for a comeback.

Why Do Some Coins Have Ridged Edges?

Jar of U.S. coins — Credit: Ray Geiger/ Shutterstock

Author Mark DeJoy

June 24, 2024

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You’ve probably noticed that of the four coins that are in wide circulation in the United States today, two, the dime and the quarter, have a series of ridges on the edge. According to the U.S. Mint, this is technically referred to as a reeded edge. But is the reeded edge purely decorative, or does it serve a purpose? The answer goes all the way back to the 17th century, before the U.S. was even founded.

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When the U.S. Mint opened in Philadelphia in 1793, the coins it produced were made of copper, silver, and gold, in accordance with the Coinage Act of 1792. Because coins of this era were made of precious metal, they were vulnerable to a practice known as clipping, which involved cutting off a small portion around the circumference of the coins. A skilled clipper would shave off enough from the coins to eventually amass a quantity of scrap metal worth cashing in, while also ensuring that the coins weren’t conspicuously reduced in size or weight, allowing the altered coins to still be spent.

Clipping had been common in 17th-century Europe, and it was so prevalent in England that by the end of that century, almost half of the silver content was absent from circulating English coins. This resulted in the metal composition of the coins being lower than their face value, a discrepancy that threatened to create a financial crisis throughout the continent, as well as in the European colonies. In order to combat the practice, England began minting coins with ridged edges; a smooth edge on any part of a coin would then be a telltale sign of clipping. When the United States was founded as an independent nation, the U.S. Mint followed suit by designing its higher denomination coins with reeded edges right from the beginning.

So that is the quick answer: Reeded edges were designed to prevent clipping. But in the U.S. today, coins are no longer made of silver or gold. As a result of the Coinage Act of 1965, almost all coins have been minted from a blend of copper and zinc. Clipping is no longer a problem, because the metal isn’t valuable enough on its own to warrant trying to harvest it (not to mention the risk of stiff penalty for defacing circulating coins). So why do coins still have reeded edges?

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The answer to that has to do with how coins are made in the first place. The coins start as flat discs (referred to as “blanks”) cut from large sheets of metal. After undergoing a heat treatment to soften the metal, they are eventually loaded into a press room, where a die stamps the image onto the coin. The outer section of the die, called the collar, is what creates the reeding on the edge of the coin. When the composition of the coins changed after the Coinage Act of 1965, the U.S. Mint could either buy new master dies to eliminate reeding, or keep the equipment they already had. Since there was no detriment to continuing with reeded edges, there was no reason to take on the cost of replacing the equipment. While the master die was eventually replaced with today’s modern machinery, reeded edges remain as a sensory aid for those with visual impairments, as a way to distinguish between pennies versus dimes, and nickels versus quarters.

5 Fascinating Facts About the Vatican

St Peter's Basilica — Credit: PhotoQuest/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

Author Tony Dunnell

June 24, 2024

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On June 7, 1929, the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini signed a treaty that established the independent state of Vatican City. With this act, the Holy See — the government of the Catholic Church, led by the pope — finally had an official home. The Vatican had existed since the ancient Roman Republic, and had served as the capital of the Papal States, but it was only in 1929 that its geographic and political boundaries were defined.

With the creation of Vatican City, a true geographical oddity was born. The most famous fact about the Vatican is likely its status as the world’s smallest fully independent nation-state. No country in the world comes close to matching the Vatican’s minuscule population, which stands at less than 800 people, nor its tiny size, with an area of just 121 acres (49 hectares) — about one-eighth the size of New York City’s Central Park. Yet within this small space sit some of the world’s most spectacular religious and cultural sites, including St. Peter’s Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, the Vatican Apostolic Library, and the extensive Vatican Museums. Here are some more fascinating facts about the Vatican, from the elite soldiers who guard the pope to a papal telescope in an unlikely locale.

The Vatican Is Protected by One of the World’s Oldest Military Units

The Pontifical Swiss Guard has protected the pope since 1506. Consisting of between 110 to 125 soldiers, it is often considered one of the smallest armies in the world. It is also one of the oldest military units in continuous operation, originating with the Swiss mercenaries recruited by former popes during the Italian Wars (1494 to 1559). Today, members of the Swiss Guard are some of the most famous and recognizable residents of the Vatican. In their distinct dress uniforms of blue, red, orange, and yellow, and often wielding halberds, they are an impressive sight. But they are not simply ceremonial. The Swiss Guard is an elite military corps, and competition for inclusion among their ranks is fierce. New recruits must be unmarried Roman Catholic males with Swiss citizenship aged between 19 and 30 years old — and they must be both capable and willing to protect the pope with their lives.

The Pope Has a Hidden Escape Route Through the Vatican

The Vatican is connected to the Castel Sant’Angelo in Parco Adriano, Rome, by what looks like a walled fortification. Inside the wall, however, is an elevated passageway that stretches for about half a mile. Known as the Passetto di Borgo, it has served as the pope’s hidden escape route for hundreds of years (the current structure dates back to 1277). On at least two occasions, it has helped save the leader’s life. In 1494, Pope Alexander VI used the Passetto to escape to safety during the invasion of Charles VIII of France. Not long after, in 1527, Pope Clement VII fled through the passageway during the Sack of Rome, when forces of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V rampaged through the city. The Swiss Guard fought bravely — and was ultimately massacred — while buying enough time for Pope Clement to escape to the safety of Castel Sant’Angelo.

Credit: Culture Club/ Hulton Fine Art Collection via Getty Images

The Vatican Museums Stretch for More Than 4 Miles

The Vatican is home to an immense museum complex called the Musei Vaticani. Founded in the 16th century by Pope Julius II, the public museums have amassed a huge array of artifacts over the centuries, collected by subsequent popes. Taken in its entirety, the complex consists of 26 museums whose combined halls and galleries stretch for around 4.3 miles and contain some 70,000 exhibits. Arguably the most famous of all the priceless masterpieces is the Sistine Chapel, with its ceiling and altar wall decorated by Michelangelo. The chapel is the last room visited on a tour of the museum complex.

Credit: Print Collector/ Hulton Fine Art Collection via Getty Images

The Vatican Has a Zero Birth Rate

It’s hard to imagine a country having a birth rate of zero, but then the Vatican isn’t a regular country. First, there are very few women in the Vatican. Figures released in 2011 revealed that there were only 32 female citizens among the Vatican’s population, compared to 540 men (and one of the women was a nun). Further contributing to the zero birth rate is the fact that the Vatican has no hospital, meaning that births take place outside the city-state. Gaining citizenship, therefore, is not dependent upon being born in the Vatican, but is instead granted by the papal powers that be.

Credit: Dave G. Houser/ Alamy Stock Photo

The Vatican Owns an Observatory in Tucson, Arizona

Religion and astronomy haven’t always been easy bedfellows (just ask Galileo), but the Vatican is nonetheless home to one of the oldest astronomical institutes in the world. Pope Leo XIII formally founded the Specola Vaticana (Vatican Observatory) in 1891, then located on a hillside behind the dome of St. Peter’s Basilica. But as Rome grew, increased smog and sky glow forced the Vatican to move its observatory just outside the city. By 1961, however, light pollution again hindered the functionality of the observatory. The Vatican therefore took a major step and opened a second research center in Tucson, Arizona. To this day, the Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope remains operational atop Mount Graham outside Tucson.

5 of the Most Famous Photographs in History

Nixon with Elvis, 1970 — Credit: National Archives/ Hulton Archive via Getty Images

Author Bennett Kleinman

June 20, 2024

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Photographs allow us to witness history with our very own eyes, immortalizing brief moments in time that are worth preserving — be it a mother struggling during the Great Depression or a handshake between Elvis Presley and Richard Nixon. Each image has a story behind it that helps explain why those moments maintain their appeal all these decades later. Here are some of the most famous photographs in recent history, and why they matter.

Credit: GraphicaArtis/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

“Migrant Mother” (1936)

In March 1936, photographer Dorothea Lange captured what many consider to be the most recognizable photo from the Great Depression. The image, titled “Migrant Mother, Nipomo, California,” features a 32-year-old farmworker and mother of seven who was later identified as Florence Owens Thompson. The photograph depicts Thompson with a forlorn look on her face as she gazes past the camera. Three of her children are also present in the photo: an infant in her lap, and two older children burying their faces in Thompson’s shoulders. When the photo was first published, however, her identity remained anonymous.

At the time, Lange was working for the Farm Security Administration, a federal agency meant to help farm workers who were displaced during the Dust Bowl. In 1960, Lange recalled how she came across a woman huddled underneath a tent inside a camp of migrant pea pickers, and chose to approach her, “as if drawn by a magnet.” The woman — Thompson — told Lange that her family had been surviving on frozen veggies and dead birds, but it was only decades later that more information was finally uncovered.

In 1978, a reporter at the Modesto Bee tracked down Thompson and confirmed she was the subject of “Migrant Mother.” With her identity revealed, Thompson admitted that she viewed the photograph as something of a curse, as she never received royalties for the use of her likeness. It also became clear that Thompson wasn’t your typical Dust Bowl refugee as initially thought, but rather a woman of Native American heritage who was displaced from tribal Cherokee lands in Oklahoma. She also noted that the camp she set up in the migrant community was only temporary, as she was just waiting there while the family car was being fixed nearby. Toward the end of Thompson’s life, people sent donations to her family to help cover the cost of the matriarch’s medical bills, and many wrote letters saying how much the image of Thompson inspired them. These gestures allowed the family to reconsider the legacy of the photograph, which they began to view with a sense of pride.

Credit: Bill Waterson/ Alamy Stock Photo

“Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima” (1945)

Joe Rosenthal was a photographer for the Associated Press during World War II whose legacy was defined by the Pulitzer Prize-winning photo “Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima.” Rosenthal captured the iconic event on February 23, 1945, on the small Japanese island of Iwo Jima, roughly 750 miles south of Tokyo in the Pacific Ocean. The picture depicts six men triumphantly raising an American flag, and commemorates an important military victory — though there’s a good deal more to the story.

The island of Iwo Jima was a strategic stronghold occupied by the Japanese. On February 19, three U.S. Marine divisions landed on Iwo Jima and began a harrowing multiday battle with Japanese forces. On February 23, Americans took control of Mount Suribachi, a geographic landmark on the southern end of the island. In celebration of their conquest, troops raised up an American flag, though not the flag seen in the famous image. It was actually a smaller flag, captured by Sergeant Louis R. Lowery in a lesser-known photograph.

Hours later, troops were ordered to replace the first flag with a larger American flag that could be seen more easily from a far distance. This caught the attention of Rosenthal, who heard the plan from a nearby radioman. Rosenthal brought his camera to the mountain, where he photographed six men (five Marines and one Navy Corpsman) raising the larger flag in what has since become an iconic image. Tragically, it took another month for American forces to take the entire island of Iwo Jima, during which three of those men were killed: Sergeant Michael Strank, Corporal Harlon Block, and Private First Class Franklin Sousley. The three others who survived the battle, and the war, were Corporals Harold Keller, Harold Schultz, and 22-year-old Ira Hayes, a soldier of Pima Indian descent who went on to meet President Harry Truman at the White House.

Credit: Alpha Historica/ Alamy Stock Photo

“Guerrillero Heroico” (1960)

The photograph “Guerrillero Heroico” (“Heroic Guerrilla Fighter”) depicts Argentine revolutionary Che Guevara, whose likeness has grown into a symbol used by counterculture groups around the world. The original image was taken by photographer Alberto Korda on March 5, 1960, depicting Guevara gazing stoically off into the distance. While the image may seem posed, it was actually captured by a stroke of luck in a mere matter of seconds.

Guevara became a popular figure throughout Cuba during the 1950s, playing a pivotal role in overthrowing the government alongside Fidel Castro. Shortly after the rebels rose to power, a ship named La Coubre exploded in Havana Harbor on March 4, 1960, killing as many as 100 local workers who were unloading ammunition. Guevara, Castro, and others attended the state funeral the next day, as did Korda, who was working for the Revolución newspaper at the time. While standing by the podium with his eyes focused on Castro, the photographer noticed that Guevara had emerged directly above him. He quickly grabbed his Leica camera and snapped two photos in rapid succession, before Guevara stepped back. He returned home to develop the photos, and cropped the original to remove another man off to the side as well as the fronds of a palm tree.

Korda described Guevara’s look in the photo as having “impressive force in his expression, given the anger concentrated in his gaze after so many deaths.” Oddly, the paper passed on publishing the photo until one year later, using it in an advertisement for an upcoming lecture delivered by the revolutionary. The image didn’t become popular until 1967, the year of Guevara’s execution. At the memorial service, a giant print of the photo was hung up by the Ministry of the Interior. A stylized version of the portrait was later used during the 1968 Paris student riots, and it became a popular symbol co-opted by various groups around the world. The image eventually took on a life of its own, and people began to lose sight of its original meaning, especially after the photo was used by major corporations such as Nike and Taco Bell in various ad campaigns.

Credit: National Archives/ Hulton Archive via Getty Images

Elvis Meets Nixon (1970)

In the year 1970, two of the most recognizable men in the world met face to face for the first time: Elvis Presley and Richard Nixon. The unlikely meeting took place on December 21, 1970, within the Oval Office, resulting in a now-legendary photo of the pair shaking hands. This image and others were taken by Nixon’s personal photographer, Oliver F. Atkins, who chronicled the impromptu and secret encounter that day.

While on a red-eye flight earlier that morning, Presley wrote a lengthy letter to President Nixon on American Airlines stationary. The rock star shared his concerns about the growing drug culture in America, and expressed an interest in becoming a “Federal Agent at Large” so he could help tackle the issue. He ended the letter by saying that he hoped to meet Nixon and “say hello if you’re not too busy.” Upon landing, he asked his limo driver to head straight to the White House, where he handed the letter to security agents at the gate. Initially, Nixon’s staffers assumed that it was just a prank. But after learning that it was indeed Elvis himself who wished to meet the President, they quickly organized an official, impromptu meeting to take place later that day.

At 11:45 a.m., “the King of Rock ’n’ Roll” returned to the White House wearing a purple velvet suit, caped cloak, gilded belt buckle, and amber-tinted sunglasses. He was immediately brought into the Oval Office, where Nixon was waiting, and thus began a 35-minute meeting where the duo discussed communism, the Beatles, Las Vegas, and even Presley’s family photos. While there, the musician requested an official badge from the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs in hopes of legitimizing his personal crusade against drug culture. Nixon obliged, and Presley was so overwhelmed with joy that he went in for a hug before the Secret Service could stop him. The pair agreed that the meeting should be kept a secret, as neither side was sure how their supporters would react. It wasn’t until January 1972 that word of this strange event finally broke, though nothing practical ever really came of it.

“Tank Man” (1989)

Associated Press photographer Jeff Widener spent the spring of 1989 in Beijing, China, covering the Tiananmen Square protests. On June 5, he captured an image that’s considered one of the most powerful acts of defiance in the face of authoritarian rule. His photo, titled “Tank Man,” shows an anonymous man in black pants and a white shirt standing in front of a line of tanks, refusing to let them continue patrolling the square.

The story behind the photograph begins months earlier, on April 15, after the death of Hu Yaobang, the former general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party who had been forced to resign two years earlier. Hu had attempted to push the country toward democratization, an effort that resonated with many Chinese youth. However, the larger government was far less open to such reforms. After Hu’s death, around 100,000 students descended on Beijing’s Tiananmen Square to continue pushing for his reforms and to protest the corrupt Chinese Communist Party that remained in power. A rally on May 19 drew 1.2 million people to the square, though it was only a matter of time before the government cracked down on the protests. This led to a horrible massacre on June 4, when military forces opened fire on demonstrators and killed hundreds of people, or possibly thousands. By the following day, the military had taken control of the square, and tanks and troops patrolled the streets once more.

On June 5, an anonymous lone man stepped into the middle of Chang’an Avenue on the edge of Tiananmen Square while a line of tanks approached him. The striking scene caught the eye of reporters and photographers who were staying at the nearby Beijing Hotel, and many turned their cameras toward the event from the balcony. Widener captured the most recognizable single image of the scene, which shows the man standing in front of four tanks, preventing their forward progress. Other, more zoomed-out photos show the true enormity of the situation, as there were dozens more tanks all in a line heading directly toward this single protester. After halting the parade of tanks, the man climbed on top of one, spoke to someone inside, and then climbed back down to prevent the tanks from continuing on. After several tense moments, two mysterious men emerged and dragged the protester away. Today, nobody truly knows the identity of “Tank Man” or what happened to him. Some say he was arrested and executed, while others claim he simply vanished off the grid — though certainly not from memory, thanks to Widener’s famous photograph.

The Funniest Medieval Dog Names

14th-century hunting dogs — Credit: PHAS/ Universal Images Group via Getty Image

Author Tony Dunnell

June 19, 2024

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Alongside their eternal nemeses cats, dogs are the most popular pets in the world. They have been humans’ most faithful friends for at least 12,000 years, hunting with us, protecting us, and accompanying us in our everyday lives. In fact, dogs were the first domesticated animals, predating chickens, cows, goats, pigs, sheep, and even agriculture itself. By the medieval era, they were firmly embedded in homes across the world. They could be found walking alongside peasant poachers as they went out to hunt, or curled up at the feet of the greatest kings and queens of Europe.

These pets, of course, had names. And thanks to a 15th-century British manuscript titled “The Names of All Manner of Hounds,” we have a fascinating insight into what canines were called in the Middle Ages. The unique manuscript, recently examined in an academic paper by researcher David Scott-Macnab, contains a list of 1,065 names given to hunting dogs during the period. It’s a treasure trove of mutt monikers, some of which truly deserve to come back into fashion (others, perhaps, not quite so much). Here are some of the funniest names on the list.

Goodynowze

Some of the best medieval dog names are those that reflect classic canine characteristics. As we all know, dogs possess a phenomenal sense of smell, as much as 100,000 times more sensitive than ours. Medieval dog owners were well aware of this canine trait, hence some wonderful olfactory-based names, including Goodynowze and Nosewise. Thanks to their superior noses, dogs are also good at finding things, so we also have the names Fynder and Fyndewell. Other sobriquets include Swifte for the agile canine, Wellyfedde and Plodder for the more languid dogs, and Letego for the dog who likes a game of tug-of-war.

Brayneles

Some dogs, it’s true, aren’t the smartest of creatures. Medieval dog owners recognized this, and sometimes bestowed names on their pets that called into question their intellectual capacities. These unflattering appellations include Brayneles, Litillwitte, Symple, Careles, and Helpeles. They were all thoroughly good dogs, for sure, but perhaps not the brightest.

Credit: Print Collector/ Hulton Archive via Getty Images

Filthe

Our medieval ancestors didn’t stop at questioning the intelligence of their dogs. They also besmirched their canine companions with unflattering names that left little to the imagination. Filthe was one such name, alongside Lewde, Oribull, Synfull, Dredefull, Vagrawnte, Wrecche, and Badde. Hopefully these designations all came from a place of love, and the dogs didn’t resent their owners for saddling them with the less-than-lovely names.

Credit: Culture Club/ Hulton Archive via Getty Images

Joliboye

Medieval dog names weren’t all defamatory — many were very positive. For the ever-amiable hound there are names such as Joliboye, Mery, Happy, and Cherefull. For dogs that can brighten even the gloomiest of days, we have Careaway and Havegoodday. Then there’s Pretiboy for all the good-looking pups out there, or Blameles for the dog that can do no wrong. Arguably the most superlative name on the list is Beste-of-all.

Credit: PHAS/ Universal Images Group via Getty Images

Radissche

Dog owners in the Middle Ages were quite fond of naming their pets after foodstuffs. Fish-based names include Salmon and Halibutte, alongside other ingredients such as Mustarde, Garlik, Sage, and Rasyne. Consumables also appear among the most popular names for male and female dogs today. In 2023, the names Oreo, Ginger, Honey, Pepper, and Whiskey were all popular. Incidentally, only two names on the medieval-era list also frequently appear on modern lists of popular dog names: Belle and Ranger.

Tullymully

Many of the monikers listed in “The Names of All Manner of Hounds” don’t make much sense — at least to the modern ear — but nonetheless have a delightful ring to them. Who wouldn’t want a dog called Tullymully or Rowte-owte? And then there’s Dasyberde, Honyball, and Tynker. Of course, not everyone is quite as imaginative. Undoubtedly the least creative name on the list is Nameles, which shows a true lack of dog-naming effort.

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