10 Facts About the Last 10 Constitutional Amendments

Women’s suffrage activists

Author Bennett Kleinman

April 3, 2024

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America wouldn’t be what it is without the U.S. Constitution, which was created to lay the groundwork for how the nation would function. But the Constitution isn’t just a relic — it’s a living document that’s always evolving, especially during the 20th century.

The 10 most recent amendments, 18 through 27, were ratified between the years of 1919 and 1992. Included among these is the groundbreaking 19th Amendment, which codified women’s suffrage and marked a major milestone in the fight for gender equality. These newer amendments also deal with issues such as presidential succession, the date of Inauguration Day, and the sale of alcohol. Here are some more fascinating details about the 10 latest amendments to the Constitution.

The 18th Amendment Led to a Misuse of Doctor’s Notes

Ratified in 1919, the 18th Amendment prohibited the “manufacture, sale, and transportation of intoxicating liquors” and ushered in the U.S. Prohibition era. This led people to conceive of clever workarounds for acquiring booze. One such method was asking doctors to write prescriptions stating that alcohol consumption was medically necessary for the patient in question, a trick Winston Churchill famously used during visits to the United States.

A State Legislator Was Convinced To Ratify the 19th Amendment by His Mother

The 19th Amendment gave women the right to vote, but its ratification was far from simple; it required support from three-fourths of the states, which at the time meant 36 of 48. After 35 states had approved the amendment and several others had rejected it, the ultimate deciding factor came down to the Tennessee House of Representatives, which was set to vote in August 1920.

After two consecutive deadlocked votes in the Tennessee Legislature (48 for, 48 against), 24-year-old Representative Harry T. Burn helped reshape the course of history. Burn changed his vote to the affirmative after receiving a convincing note from his mother in support of women’s suffrage, finally confirming the amendment’s passage.

The 20th Amendment Changed Inauguration Day

The gap between Election Day and Inauguration Day was longer prior to the 20th amendment than it is today, which created a “lame duck” period for many outgoing Presidents.

The 20th Amendment moved up the start of a presidential term from March 4 to January 20 to lessen that gap and expedite the start of the President-elect’s term. The amendment was ratified on January 23, 1933, and went into effect on February 6, a mere 17 days later.

The 21st Amendment Is the Only Amendment To Repeal Another

The 21st Amendment — ratified on December 5, 1933 — repealed the Prohibition laws established by the 18th Amendment back in 1919, thus legalizing alcohol once again. This made the 21st Amendment the first — and so far only — U.S. constitutional amendment to repeal another.

While Prohibition had enjoyed a certain degree of popularity at first, public opinion shifted throughout the 1920s and early 1930s. This was due in large part to an increase in illegal alcohol production, which padded the pockets of crime syndicates such as the mob. Congress acted accordingly to stymie further growth in this unseemly direction.

Harry Truman Called the 22nd Amendment “Stupid”

The 22nd Amendment was added to the Constitution in 1947, during President Harry S. Truman’s time in office. This amendment established presidential term limits and was a direct response to FDR’s extensive time in office (four consecutive terms). President Truman vehemently opposed the very idea of the amendment, describing it as “bad,” “stupid,” and “one of the worst that has been put into the Constitution, except for the Prohibition amendment.”

D.C. Residents Couldn’t Vote for President Before the 23rd Amendment

Prior to the 23rd Amendment’s 1961 ratification, residents of Washington, D.C., were forbidden from voting in national presidential elections. Thanks to this amendment, they were finally able to exercise that right for the first time in 1964 — though on the flip side, the amendment prohibits D.C. from having any congressional representation.

Mississippi Was the Only State To Formally Reject the 24h Amendment

The 24rth Amendment outlawed poll taxes with regards to elections and was easily passed amid the Civil Rights Movement of the mid-1960s. These poll taxes had formerly targeted poor Americans — a majority of whom were Black — by forcing prospective voters to pay in order to exercise their constitutional right to vote. While there had been concerns of Southern states roundly rejecting the amendment and preventing its passage, in the end, Mississippi was the only state to say “nay.”

The 25th Amendment Eliminated Vice Presidential Vacancies

Prior to the ratification of the 25th Amendment in 1967, the office of the Vice President could be left vacant if the previous VP died or ascended to the presidency, which, by that point, had happened 16 times since the office was established. This amendment changed that, ruling that the President must appoint a Vice President to fill the vacancy rather than leave it empty until the end of a term.

The 26th Amendment Initially Applied Only to Federal Elections

The 26th Amendment — which lowered the national voting age from 21 to 18 — underwent a transformation shortly after its passage. One year prior to the amendment’s 1971 ratification, the Supreme Court case Oregon v. Mitchell ruled that Congress could lower the voting age only for national presidential elections, not for state and local elections. However, in 1975, Dunn v. Blumstein extended the amendment to cover all state and local elections as well.

The 27th Amendment Was Originally Proposed in 1789

While the 27th Amendment was ultimately ratified in 1992, it was first proposed a whopping 202 years and seven months prior by James Madison in 1789. This long-delayed amendment requires all congressional pay raises to take effect during the following congressional term in lieu of abrupt salary increases in the middle of a term.

Essentially, members of Congress now have to run again and win in order to receive the higher salary they voted upon. At the time of this amendment’s initial proposal, detractors claimed that the law was unnecessary and that Congress could be trusted to grant themselves fair salaries.

After seven states initially ratified the amendment, it was 80 years before an additional state (Ohio) added its seal of approval in 1873, on the heels of an unpopular congressional pay raise. In the end, the amendment passed after public dissatisfaction with a series of congressional pay increases.

What Did People Use Before Toothbrushes?

Women brush their teeth

Author Bennett Kleinman

April 3, 2024

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Since the fourth millennium BCE, when urban civilizations first appeared in ancient Mesopotamia, humans have strived to achieve proper dental hygiene. Yet the nylon-bristled toothbrush we use today didn’t come along until the 1930s. For the thousands of years in between, people relied on rudimentary tools that evolved with scientific knowledge and technological advancements over time. Some of the earliest toothbrush predecessors date as far back as 3500 BCE. Here’s a look at how people kept their teeth clean before the modern toothbrush.

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Chew Sticks and Toothpicks

Sometime around the year 3500 BCE, the ancient Babylonians (located near modern-day Iraq) created a tool known as a “chew stick.” This simple, handheld piece of wood is considered the earliest known direct predecessor to the toothbrushes we use today. Chew sticks were simple wooden twigs cut to approximately 5 or 6 inches long. One end of the stick was then softened in boiling liquid to help separate the fibers, creating an almost brushlike effect. Individuals would chew on these sticks to freshen their mouths, as the frayed fibers would slide between the teeth and help loosen debris. Many early Arab cultures used a specific shrub called Salvadora persica (also known as the “toothbrush tree”) to create their chew sticks, which they called miswak. The shrub was particularly aromatic in nature and thought to have a stronger mouth-freshening effect than other plants.

Around this same time, civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and elsewhere in the ancient world also used early versions of a toothpick to keep their teeth clean. These were often made of thin pieces of wood, though in later years, wealthy individuals began crafting toothpicks from brass and silver for added opulence and durability. In ancient Greece, toothpicks were known as karphos, roughly meaning “blade of straw,” suggesting the Greeks may have used coarse fibers such as straw in addition to wood.

Toothpaste Predated Toothbrushes

Before handheld teeth-cleaning devices became widespread, many ancient civilizations relied on a dental cream made of various ingredients, including the ashes of oxen hooves, myrrh, egg shells, and pumice. This cream was first developed in ancient Egypt sometime before 3000 BCE, and was mixed with water and then rubbed into the teeth to help remove debris. Around 1000 BCE, flavorful ingredients such as herbs and honey were added to the mix by the Persians. Another thousand years after that, the ancient Greeks and Romans improved the cream even further by adding abrasive elements such as crushed bone and oyster shell to really help get rid of stuck-on debris.

The First Hog’s Hair Toothbrush

The world of dental hygiene was forever changed thanks to the ingenuity of ancient China. During the Tang dynasty (618 to 907 CE), coarse hair fibers from the back of a hog’s neck were attached to a handle made of bamboo or bone, creating an early handheld toothbrushing device. Centuries later in 1498, Emperor Hongzhi of the Ming dynasty formally patented this hog’s hair toothbrush. For the next several centuries, artisan toothbrush makers around the world drew inspiration from ancient China and continued to heavily rely on coarse boar’s hair. In fact, toothbrush bristles didn’t see another major change until the middle of the 20th century.

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Toothbrushes Go Mainstream in Europe

Boar’s hair toothbrushes didn’t really take off in Western Europe until the 17th century — before that, Europeans often relied on toothpicks, as well as rags rolled in salt or soot, as they believed the coarse substances helped remove debris from teeth. But around the mid-1600s, French dentists began pushing people to take better care of their teeth as they made scientific advances on the topic of dental hygiene. In 1649, an English politician named Ralph Verney, who was living in Paris at the time, was asked by a friend back in England to see if he could get his hands on some French-made “little brushes for making cleane of the teeth,” which were becoming more common throughout the region.

There was a bit of pushback in British society against using toothbrushes, however, as some people worried about the cost and hassle of replacing these devices that wore down over time. Instead, some promoted cheaper alternatives that could be easily crafted at home — the 1741 British text The Compleat Housewife advised wrapping a cloth around your finger and using that to clean your teeth instead, a process that had also been used in ancient Greece and Rome. But these detractors were in the minority, and the production of handheld tools began to expand. By 1780, Englishman William Addis realized how to improve upon the available toothbrushes of the time, which were using animal fibers sourced locally. Addis began importing boar’s hair directly from Siberia and northern China, as the boars from those cold climates had coarser, more durable hair to withstand the elements, which was believed to be more effective at cleaning teeth. Addis founded his namesake company shortly thereafter — which is still in operation today — and began successfully producing toothbrushes on a much larger scale.

How Toothbrushes Took Off in America

As brushing one’s teeth became increasingly popular in Britain, that fervor spread to the British colonies in the Americas. Toothbrushes even caught the eye of future Presidents George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, the latter of whom instructed a London-based colleague to bring him “½ doz. Tooth brushes, the hair neither too strong nor too weak” as well as “½ doz. do. with the strongest hair, such as hog’s bristle.”

It wasn’t until the 19th century, however, that toothbrushes really became popular among everyday Americans, who previously relied on coarse clothes, toothpicks, and other rudimentary methods that were common back in Europe. This was in part due to the rise of a middle class with disposable income to spend on dental care products. The Industrial Revolution also increased commercial production of toothbrushes, which made the product available on a wider scale. On November 7, 1857, dental school graduate H.N. Wadsworth became the first American to successfully patent a toothbrush design, and large-scale production of toothbrushes began throughout the country by the mid-1880s. One of the earliest known American-made toothbrushes was produced by the Florence Manufacturing Company of Massachusetts. Known as the “Pro-phy-lac-tic,” the brush looked quite similar in design to many modern toothbrushes, though coarse animal hair was still used for the bristles.

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The First Nylon Toothbrush

On February 24, 1938, the U.S.-based DuPont chemical company changed the world of dental care with the debut of a new toothbrush featuring delicate nylon bristles instead of coarse hog’s hair. This was the first nylon toothbrush in the world, fitting since DuPont invented nylon to begin with. The synthetic bristles were just as effective at cleaning teeth, if not more so, and made using the tool more pleasurable. The first commercial nylon-bristled toothbrush was called Dr. West’s Miracle Tuft, and DuPont maintained exclusive rights to nylon bristles until the 1940s. Once that exclusivity expired, other manufacturers began incorporating the material into their own designs, and nylon bristles eventually became the standard.

6 Things You Didn’t Know About the Rosetta Stone

The Rosetta Stone

Author Rachel Gresh

March 27, 2024

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The Rosetta Stone, an ancient artifact discovered in Rosetta, Egypt, in 1799, was the key to unlocking the centuries-old mystery of Egyptian hieroglyphics. The black granite stone is a “stela” — a large standing slab used by ancient civilizations as a marker, typically for dedications or commemorations — inscribed with a text known as the “Decree of Memphis.” The text is, frankly, somewhat dull: It outlines the achievements of Ptolemy V Epiphanes, who ruled Egypt from 205 to 180 BCE. However, it’s not the subject of the stone but the script itself that is important.

The text is written in both Egyptian hieroglyphs and ancient Greek script. Because the ancient Greek and modern Greek languages are so similar, the Greek inscription served as the starting point for translating the Rosetta Stone. Using the Greek script, researchers translated the language of ancient Egypt for the first time in history. However, there is much more to this story than a simple translation. Shrouded in mystery and nearly destroyed by several wars, the Rosetta Stone has fascinated historians for centuries. Here are six surprising facts about this important discovery.

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The Stone Features Two Forms of Egyptian Writing

It’s widely known that the Rosetta Stone features text written in both Egyptian hieroglyphics and the ancient Greek alphabet, allowing scholars to decipher the previously mysterious ancient symbols. However, the stone isn’t a bilingual message — it’s trilingual. The third script on the stone is Egyptian demotic, a cursive form of Egyptian hieroglyphics that was also undeciphered before the discovery of the Rosetta Stone. It was used in ancient Egypt from the early seventh century BCE until the fifth century CE for business and literary purposes. By the time of the Ptolemaic period (304 to 30 BCE), rulers of Egypt were of Greco-Macedonian descent (following Alexander the Great’s conquest of the region). Around this time, Egyptian demotic and hieroglyphics began to decline in favor of the Greek writing system, which is why all three scripts were etched on the stone.

There Is More Than One Rosetta Stone

Contrary to popular belief, there is more than one ancient artifact inscribed with the text found on the Rosetta Stone. The “Decree of Memphis” was copied onto several stone slabs and placed in temples throughout ancient Egypt. Some historical records state that a stone was placed in every sizable temple in the region, though not that many have been recovered. The original slab, the first to be discovered and deciphered, is currently displayed at the British Museum in London. Every copy that has been found features the same decree, and some of these other stones are on display in museums around the world.

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The Rosetta Stone Was Originally Part of a Fort

Before the Rosetta Stone became a museum centerpiece, it was part of a wall around Fort Julien in the town of Rashid (also known as Rosetta) in Egypt. The fort was built on the west bank of the Nile River in 1470 CE by the Egyptian sultan. More than three centuries later, in 1799, the stone was rediscovered at the fort as French soldiers entered the area during the Napoleonic Wars. Pierre-François Bouchard, one of the soldiers assigned to the campaign, is typically credited with discovering the stone, while he was searching for building materials for new French fortifications. The mysterious stone was taken to the Institut d'Égypte in Cairo (founded by Napoleon Bonaparte), where French scientists made copies of the text and began trying to decipher it.

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It Took 23 Years to Decipher the Rosetta Stone

Although linguists, scholars, and scientists were eager to decipher the Rosetta Stone, the process took more than two decades. Two men are credited with translating most of the decree: Thomas Young of England and Jean-François Champollion of France. Young was the first to make significant advancements in the decipherment, starting with the name “Ptolemy.” Young also used the direction the animals faced to determine which way to read the hieroglyphs. In 1821, Champollion took over the task, eventually publishing a groundbreaking list of Egyptian hieroglyphs and their Greek equivalents. The linguist finished his work in 1822, marking an end to the 23 years of work since the discovery of the artifact in 1799. All subsequent Egyptian hieroglyphic translations were done based on the work of these two scholars.

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The Stone’s Fate Was Determined by the Treaty of Alexandria

After French soldiers discovered the Rosetta Stone during Napoleon’s occupation of Egypt, it was considered the property of France. But when Napoleon surrendered Egypt in 1801, the stone passed to British control under the Treaty of Alexandria. The treaty was signed by French, British, and Egyptian generals, and stated that Egyptian antiquities found by the French, including the Rosetta Stone, would be handed over to the British. The artifact was promptly shipped to England and arrived in Portsmouth in 1802, and has been kept in London ever since.

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It Was Hidden in Railway Tunnels During World War I

The Rosetta Stone has been displayed in the British Museum for more than 220 years, with one exception. In 1917, amid World War I, heavy bombing threatened the valuable artifacts in the museum, so the stone and other priceless objects were moved into underground railway tunnels for safekeeping. Specifically, the Rosetta Stone was placed in the city’s Post Office Railway — a small tunnel initially designed to transport mail — some 50 feet below Holburn in central London. After two years in hiding, the stone was finally returned to the museum.

6 of the Most Unforgettable Pets in History

Marilyn Monroe’s dog, Maf

Author Sarah Anne Lloyd

March 27, 2024

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Animal fame has reached new heights in the internet era, but some especially notable pets still managed to achieve celebrity status before the likes of Grumpy Cat, Lil Bub, and Boo — one of the animals on this list even dates back to the first century CE.

Many high-profile companions reach stardom by virtue of their celebrity owners, such as Mr. Famous, Audrey Hepburn’s aptly named Yorkshire, who appeared alongside her in 1957’s Funny Face. But pets can also become famous on their own merits (or demerits), as in the case of the dog who pushed kids into a river so he could stage a rescue for treats, or the cat who survived a whopping three shipwrecks. Here are the stories of six animals who left their indelible pawprints — or hoofprints — on the world.

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Babou the Ocelot

In the mid-20th century, the attempted domestication of ocelots — a breed of wild cat that isn’t recommended as a pet — wasn’t unheard of. One of the most famous pet ocelots of the era was Babou, the animal companion of surrealist artist Salvador Dalí. The feline followed him everywhere, even famously accompanying Dalí to one of his art exhibitions in a bejeweled collar.

Understandably, Babou was not always a welcome guest. When Dalí once brought him to an art gallery in Paris, the owner angrily told Dalí that Babou had “made a nuisance” on his 17th-century engravings. The artist reportedly responded, “A nuisance of Dalí’s … can only increase their value.”

On another occasion, Dalí tied Babou’s leash to a table at a Manhattan restaurant. When another diner expressed her alarm, Dalí assured her the animal was just a normal cat he’d “painted over in an op art design.” By 1970, Dalí had acquired a second ocelot named Bouba, although she didn’t achieve quite the same level of notoriety.

Mafia Honey the Dog

This fluffy little Maltese dog was famous for his association with two major celebrities, having been gifted to Marilyn Monroe in 1960 by Frank Sinatra to console her after her split from playwright Arthur Miller.

Cheekily named for Sinatra’s alleged ties to the mob and called “Maf” for short, the dog was Monroe’s close companion for roughly the last two years of her life. He was even permitted to sleep on a fur coat Miller had given her. Following Monroe’s death in 1962, Frank Sinatra’s secretary Gloria Lovell cared for Maf until his death in 1974. But his fame didn’t end there: Two Polaroids featuring Maf sold for more than $220,000 in 1999.

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Incitatus the Horse

The most famous pet of the ancient world was likely Incitatus, a horse owned by Caligula, the third emperor of Rome. According to one myth, Caligula loved his horse so much, he even appointed the animal to consul.

Although this likely never happened, it certainly contributed to the horse’s legendary status. Even if Incitatus (whose name means “swift” or “at full gallop”) never held a human position, he still enjoyed a pretty lavish life. According to historians, he resided in a marble stable with an ivory manger and wore a collar made of precious stones.

Scatter the Chimpanzee

Elvis Presley had a chaotic menagerie of animals at Graceland, including several horses, donkeys he kept in an empty swimming pool, and a myna bird that would mimic the excuses it heard for why Presley couldn’t come to the phone.

His most storied pet, however, was Scatter, a chimpanzee who wore human clothes and caused oodles of mischief. Scatter had a penchant for alcohol and peeking under women’s skirts, destroyed the office of legendary movie producer Samuel Goldwyn, and frequently ran off to break into neighbors’ houses. Even so, years after the chimp’s death, Elvis said that he was “one of the best buddies [he] had around.”

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King Charles the Horse

The 1944 film National Velvet, which told the story of a young girl who believes in and trains a difficult horse, propelled then-12-year-old Elizabeth Taylor to stardom. Her equine co-star, the racehorse King Charles, was already famous in his own right before hitting the big screen: He was related to two of the most famous racehorses of all time, Man o’ War and Seabiscuit. Taylor, having bonded with the horse over the course of the production, repeatedly asked to keep him as her pet. The film’s producer, Louis B. Mayer, eventually granted the young actress’s request for her 13th birthday.

Unsinkable Sam the Cat

Unlike the other animals on this list, this one’s fame has little to do with his owner. According to legend, a cat named Oscar, later known as “Unsinkable Sam,” was one of just a few to survive the 1941 sinking of a German battleship called the Bismarck. Oscar was then picked up by the HMS Cossack, a British destroyer, and again survived when his new home was torpedoed exactly five months later. Following this second disaster, the lucky (or unlucky) cat spent less than one month on the British aircraft carrier Ark Royal before it suffered the same fate as the Cossack — yet Oscar miraculously managed to survive once again. Afterward, he retired to a home on land in Belfast, where he lived until his 1955 death. A portrait of “Unsinkable Sam” resides in London’s National Maritime Museum.

Was the Trojan Horse Real?

Trojan Horse procession

Author Cynthia Barnes

March 27, 2024

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The myths and history handed down from the ancient Greeks still permeate our culture today, from idioms such as “the Midas touch” and “Achilles’ heel” to the name of the world’s largest online retailer. Many of the legends recount the actions of Odysseus, the king of Ithaca and the hero of Homer’s epic poems the “Iliad” and the “Odyssey.” It’s believed these stories originated as oral performances and were committed to parchment in the eighth or mid-seventh century BCE. But there’s much that remains mysterious about Homer’s epics (including the very existence of Homer himself). One of the most iconic stories of the “Iliad” is that of the Trojan Horse, a tale so well known that the term is still used today to describe clever trickery that breaches defenses. Yet the question remains: Did the incident ever really happen?

We Now Know the City of Troy Was Real

Homer’s “Iliad” richly details the story of a decade-long siege against the city of Troy and its king, Priam, led by Menelaus, king of Sparta, and Menelaus’ brother Agamemnon, king of Mycenae. In the story, the conflict is fought over Menelaus’ wife, Helen (famously described by poet Christopher Marlowe as having a “face that launch’d a thousand ships”), who was given to Priam’s son Paris by the goddess Aphrodite.

Ancient scholars, including Herodotus, the fifth-century BCE Greek historian often called the “father of history,” firmly believed that the Trojan War had occurred some 800 years before classical Greece. But over the years, the common belief became that both the war and the city of Troy itself were the stuff of fiction. That skepticism was finally put to rest in the 19th century, after German amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann discovered a late Bronze Age mound now known as Hisarlik, in the northwest corner of modern-day Turkey. Excavations uncovered fortifications, pottery, and treasures from the site, which is now generally accepted to be the location of ancient Troy, putting the mythical city back on the map.

The existence of Troy raises the question: What else in Homer’s myth is real? Did the Trojan War actually happen? While proof of that great siege is more difficult to come by, there is evidence to suggest the Trojan War, which is said to have taken place around the 12th century BCE, was also a real conflict. Cuneiform tablets from the Hittite civilization reference a war with details that follow the rough outline of Homer’s battling empires. What’s more, charred arrowheads and unburied skeletons found in later archaeological excavations suggest that a large and violent conflict took place within the city’s walls, though there’s no knowing for certain if it was the 10-year Trojan War described in Homer’s epic.

What Is the Story of the Trojan Horse?

According to accounts by Homer in the “Odyssey” — later expanded on by the Roman poet Virgil in the “Aeneid” — the siege against Troy had been grinding on for nearly 10 years when Odysseus hatched a scheme to construct a giant wooden horse on wheels (the horse being a symbol of Troy) to sneak Greek soldiers behind the city walls. According to the plan, the Greek army would appear to flee, abandoning the equine structure as a peace offering and a symbol of surrender. The hollow structure, however — described in Virgil’s “Aeneid” as “a horse of mountainous size” — would conceal soldiers hidden inside — as Virgil put it, to “secretly hide a picked body of men, chosen by lot, there, in the dark body, filling the belly and the huge cavernous insides with armed warriors.” This trickery would allow Odysseus’ soldiers to get past the gates and sack the fortress, finally defeating their Trojan foes. The ruse worked, according to the legend. The city of Troy fell, and Odysseus sailed away to begin his long journey home.

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So Was the Trojan Horse Real?

The tale of the Trojan Horse has been recounted countless times — including with a giant rabbit in the film Monty Python and the Holy Grail — and a wooden replica used in the 2004 film Troy now stands in Çanakkale, Turkey, near the site of ancient Troy. The timely legend even sparked the saying, “Beware of Greeks bearing gifts.” Yet historians still aren’t certain whether the story is factual or, more likely, an elaborate myth with some roots in reality. Some have theorized that the horse was a metaphor for whatever did destroy the city of Troy, such as a natural disaster or an enemy ship. But the prevailing theory is that the clever structure may have been based on ancient siege engines, such as battering rams, which were often covered with wet horse hides. The damp hides helped protect the wooden siege engines (and the soldiers using them) from flaming arrows, which may have been the inspiration for the legendary ruse.

5 Bizarre Customs in Ancient Greece and Rome

Ancient Greek showering

Author Sarah Anne Lloyd

March 27, 2024

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It would be an understatement to say that life was very different a couple thousand years ago, be it food or housing or hygiene. In many cases, that was due to a lack of scientific understanding — such as how the human body works, or how to build an oven in a house without setting it on fire. Social norms in ancient times were also a sharp contrast to modern ones, particularly where modesty is concerned. Many of the customs practiced by ancient Greeks and Romans would be considered unusual or even gross today, such as purchasing sweat from famous athletes or washing clothes in urine. Here are five strange ancient habits we’re happy to leave in the past.

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Drinking Gladiator Blood

In Roman gladiatorial combat, athletes were forced to fight in front of a live audience, sometimes to the death. Yet the public’s thirst for blood didn’t stop there. The blood of defeated gladiators was considered a powerful medicine, and was used to treat everything from epilepsy to impotence. Patients were even encouraged to drink directly from the fallen gladiator on the battlefield. Roman scholar Pliny the Elder wrote that “these persons, forsooth, consider it a most effectual cure for their disease, to quaff the warm, breathing, blood from man himself, and, as they apply their mouth to the wound, to draw forth his very life.” Livers from fallen gladiators were also a supposed cure for various ailments, and Roman physician Scribonius Largus wrote of spectators who would “snatch a piece of liver from a gladiator lying gutted in the dust.” Gladiators often died young, powerful, and healthy, which is likely why their blood was so sought-after.

Going to the Bathroom in Close Quarters

Public restrooms in ancient Rome were not for the shy. Some toilet holes were cut close together in long benches with no dividers between them, so people doing their business had very little wiggle room. Togas offered this setup a surprising amount of privacy, however, since the draped garments obscured pretty much everything. Still, the upper classes rarely used these public toilets, understandably preferring their own personal latrines. Even being connected to the same sewer system was considered too close for some wealthy Romans.

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Exercising and Competing Nude

The word “gymnasium” comes from the Greek word gymnasion, meaning “school for naked exercise.” That’s because ancient Greek athletes largely eschewed clothing, instead covering themselves in oil and dust. The first recorded nude athlete was Orsippus of Megara, who competed in the 15th Olympic Games in 720 BCE. According to some ancient scholars, his loincloth fell off during the race and he ran on to victory. A rival story paints a different picture, claiming Orsippus actually tripped over his loincloth and died. Either way, competing nude in the Olympics and other athletic events became a common custom in ancient Greece. At the end of the sixth century BCE, athletes in Athens briefly tried wearing loincloths again, but soon abandoned them and returned to full nudity.

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Literally Scraping Sweat Off the Skin

Ancient Greeks and Romans took cleaning themselves pretty seriously, but they couldn’t exactly hop into the shower and build up a lather. Rather, some people used a hook-shaped instrument called a strigil to wipe moisture off of their skin. Strigils were commonly used by athletes, who would slather their bodies in oil before exercising, sometimes adding sand to increase grip. Afterward, they’d apply fresh oil, scrape all the sweat, oil, and dirt off the skin, and finish with water and a sponge. Fans would sometimes purchase what the strigil left behind. The cleaning instruments were prized possessions, and ancient Romans sometimes paired them with a decorated oil vessel called a balsamarium.

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Stamping Bread

Just before putting bread in the oven, ancient Roman bakers would often place a bronze stamp on top of the dough, which would leave an indent as it baked. The symbol it left behind would identify the baker behind the loaf, similar to a maker’s mark on fine ceramics. Bakers at the time typically shared ovens — in-home ovens were a fire hazard — so using a stamp helped bakers keep track of their products and pick up the right loaf once the bread was done. It was important to keep track of your bread not just for professional reputation, but for legal reasons, too. Bread was strictly regulated in ancient Rome, and government officials would inspect the weight, size, and cost of the finished products to prevent fraud.

The Fascinating History of Mail

Letters from the mail

Author Kristina Wright

March 21, 2024

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For many of us, sending and receiving mail is a routine part of our daily lives. But this seemingly mundane task has quite an interesting history. Postal systems have existed for nearly as long as humans have communicated through writing. Egypt holds the distinction of pioneering the earliest documented state-sponsored postal service, which dates all the way back to 2400 BCE, with the oldest known postal document dating back to 255 BCE. Initially used by pharaohs, emperors, and kings to disseminate information across their domain, postal systems eventually broadened their scope to transmit messages among religious and educational institutions.

Relay stations were established along messenger routes to expedite the delivery of information across vast distances. As these systems evolved to become more efficient and inclusive, the opportunity to send messages via formal postal services was eventually made available to private individuals.

Since the earliest days of royal postal services, mail has been delivered via nearly all possible means: It’s been carried by couriers on foot, horse and wagon, mule, bicycle, train, steamboat, plane, motorcycle, and even dog sled. Here are more fascinating facts about the history of mail and how it has evolved over the centuries to keep us all connected.

The Pony Express Operated for Just 18 Months

In the 1800s, mass migration westward via the Oregon Trail, the arrival of Mormon immigrants in Utah, and the California gold rush all played a role in the need for swift and reliable mail service beyond the Rocky Mountains. The Leavenworth and Pike’s Peak Express Company, which eventually became the parent company of the Pony Express, galloped in to fulfill this need in 1859.

Covering more than 1,900 miles in just 10 days, the Pony Express ran between St. Joseph, Missouri, and Sacramento, California. With horse-changing stations posted at 10- to 15-mile intervals along the route, each rider was able to cover an average of 75 to 100 miles before passing the reins to the next.

However, it wasn’t long before the completion of the transcontinental telegraph system brought an end to the Pony Express. Although the equestrian delivery service looms large as an enduring symbol of the rugged American Old West, it really only ran from April 1860 to October 1861.

Mail Service Went International in 1874

Headquartered in Bern, Switzerland, the General Postal Union was established when 22 countries signed the Treaty of Bern on October 9, 1874. The organization was formed with the intent of unifying the multitude of international postal services into a single postal territory and establishing regulations for international mail exchanges.

In 1878, the group’s name was changed to the Universal Postal Union to reflect its fast-growing global membership. Today, the UPU has expanded to 192 member countries and not only sets the guidelines for international mail exchanges, but also serves to advise, mediate, and act as a liaison in postal matters, making recommendations for growth and providing technical assistance as needed.

People Mailed Fruit, Eggs, and Even Children

Starting January 1, 1913, people were able to send parcels that weighed more than 4 pounds via the U.S. Post Office’s parcel post service. Prior to that, Americans had to rely on private, unregulated express companies to transport their packages.

The service was used primarily by rural farm families to ship their goods, and around 300 million parcels were mailed during the first six months of operations, spurring box manufacturers to design boxes capable of carrying the wide variety of items consumers wanted to ship. Some of these first packages included items such as apples and eggs, but other resourceful customers took advantage by “mailing” their children, because the cost of postage to have a child chaperoned to their destination by a postal worker was cheaper than a train ticket. However, only a few children were “mailed” via the postal service before the postmaster established regulations prohibiting the practice.

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Each Digit of Your ZIP Code Has a Meaning

The 1963 introduction of Zone Improvement Plan (ZIP) codes in the United States aimed to streamline the mail sorting process for faster delivery. Two-digit numerical codes originated during World War II, when post offices faced staffing shortages; the first digit denoted the city, while the second denoted the state.

Those two-digit codes evolved into the five-digit ZIP codes we know today. The first digit represents a broad geographical area, from 0 in the Northeast to 9 in the West; the following two digits designate the code of a central post office facility in that region; and the last two digits represent small post offices or postal zones.

In 1983, the ZIP+4 code was introduced to further increase the precision of mail sorting by adding a hyphen and four more numbers to the five-digit ZIP code. These additional numbers serve to identify specific delivery routes that can represent houses on one side of a street or even a particular building that receives a lot of mail.

“Snail Mail” Still Isn't Obsolete — Yet

The prevalence of letter writing began to fade in the 19th and 20th centuries as the telegraph and telephone became widely available. Over the past three decades, the convenience of email, texting, and other forms of digital communication have caused another steep drop in the sending and receiving of “snail mail.” A 2021 survey found that 37% percent of Americans hadn’t written a personal letter for more than five years, while 15% of adults reported that they had never written one.

But the sending and receiving of handwritten messages continues to endure on a smaller scale; in fact, the U.S. Postal Service noted an uptick in handwritten notes and cards during the pandemic as people sought to connect during an uncertain and isolating time. In addition, volunteer organizations have used postcard-writing programs to help grassroots groups foster community and encourage people to vote.

The Strange History of the Easter Bunny

Two Easter Bunnies

Author Tony Dunnell

March 21, 2024

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Easter, known in the Christian faith as Resurrection Sunday, is a religious holiday that commemorates when Jesus Christ rose from the dead. According to the New Testament of the Bible, the resurrection occurred on the third day after Jesus’ crucifixion by the Romans at Calvary, around 30 CE. Fast-forward to the present day, and we find people celebrating this miraculous event by searching for hidden colorful eggs and consuming copious amounts of chocolate, all of it enabled by a fluffy rabbit — not exactly what you would associate with the events following the crucifixion.

The rabbit’s involvement, in particular, is somewhat baffling. The Bible certainly doesn’t mention any rabbits in association with Jesus’ resurrection, Holy Week (the last week of Lent), or Easter. So where did the Easter Bunny come from? Historians still aren’t entirely sure, but there are some clues as to the origins of this legendary leporid.

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The Easter Bunny’s Ancient Origins

Rabbits and hares have been perceived as sacred for millennia by civilizations across the globe. They were venerated in Celtic mythology, they appear in the fables of Central African societies, and they are portrayed as cunning tricksters in the myths of Indigenous tribes in North America such as the Michabo and Manabush. Then there’s the intriguing “three hares” symbol, an enigmatic representation of three hares running in an endless loop, which has been discovered in numerous cultures across the globe, from the United Kingdom to China. How any of this might connect with Easter is difficult to say, but we do know that the rabbit has a long history of symbolic usage, and is commonly associated with fertility. Rabbits, after all, are well known for their ability to reproduce at impressive rates — something the philosopher Aristotle noted way back in the fourth century BCE. By the medieval and Renaissance periods, rabbits had become well established as symbols of reproduction in European art. So, while we don’t know precisely when the rabbit became involved with Easter, we do know that it had a symbolic connection with birth, and therefore rebirth — or resurrection.

An Anglo-Saxon Deity Named Ēostre

Historians have long debated the existence of an Anglo-Saxon goddess named Ēostre (or Ostara). This Old English deity was solely described by the medieval cleric known as St. Bede the Venerable (672-735 CE), considered the “father of English history.” According to Bede’s eighth-century work The Reckoning of Time, pagan Anglo-Saxons once held feasts in Ēostre’s honor during Ēosturmōnaþ (the equivalent of April). It’s possible that this mythical figure lent her name to Easter, but Bede’s account makes no mention of rabbits. The first scholarly connection made between Ēostre and bunnies came in 1874, when the German mythologist Adolf Holtzmann wrote, “The Easter Hare is inexplicable to me, but probably the hare was the sacred animal of Ostara.” Holtzmann was being highly speculative with no supporting evidence to connect Ēostre with an Easter hare or rabbit. Nonetheless, the connection gained some traction, and is often cited as a possible origin of the Easter Bunny.

The First Easter Hare

It’s not until the 1600s that we see the hare specifically linked to Easter, and this connection originated in Europe. Accounts from Germany describe children hunting for Easter eggs hidden by the Easter hare, much like our modern tradition. At the same time, records from England also mention the Easter hare, which was traditionally hunted and eaten during the Easter feast. We cannot know for sure exactly why and how these traditions came about, but we do know that our concept of the Easter Bunny — and its role in the modern holiday — was established in parts of Europe during the 17th century.

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The Easter Bunny Arrives in America

The Easter Bunny first came to America with German immigrants, possibly in the late 1600s. During colonial times, the Pennsylvania Dutch — the name given to a group of German-speaking peoples who settled primarily in Pennsylvania’s southwestern corner — came to America, bringing their own customs with them. These settlers laid the foundation for our modern Easter traditions, including the Easter Bunny. According to Alfred Shoemaker, a Pennsylvania Dutch folklorist, “The Easter rabbit is perhaps the greatest contribution the Pennsylvania Dutch have made to American life.” One German immigrant, Johann Conrad Gilbert, who arrived in Pennsylvania in 1757, created the first known paintings of the Easter Bunny made on American soil, including two drawings of a leaping hare holding a basket of colorful Easter eggs. Likely created around 1778, the drawings are concrete evidence of the Easter Bunny’s arrival in America.

5 Incredible Facts About Japanese Samurai

Samurai warrior armor

Author Tony Dunnell

March 21, 2024

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Though aristocratic warriors known as bushi had long existed in Japanese society, in the late 12th century a new warrior class emerged: the samurai. The word “samurai” itself can be translated as “one who serves,” and these warriors served their masters — the feudal landholders, or daimyo, who ruled much of Japan — with discipline and loyalty. For their service, they were well paid and highly respected in society.

The elite samurai warriors were meticulously trained in martial arts and military strategy. Their skill with the sword — be it a curved katana or the shorter wakizashi — is legendary. (By the late 1600s, the samurai carried two swords, known as daishō, as a symbol of status.) They also fought using tanto daggers, the naginata polearm and the yumi longbow. Altogether, they were a fearsome sight indeed — even more so in their flexible and ornate armor, the sight of which could instill fear in the bravest of enemies.

The samurai were a fundamental part of Japanese society for centuries. But as Japan began to modernize and open its borders to foreign trade, the power of the clans diminished and the role of the samurai began to wane, especially with the rise of gunpowder weapons. Feudalism was officially abolished in 1871, and five years later the wearing of swords was outlawed for everyone except members of the national armed forces. The age of the samurai was over.

The legacy of the samurai, however, remains culturally significant throughout Japan, and has also achieved iconic status in the West, not only in martial arts but also more broadly in popular culture, seen in movies, literature, video games, and more. Here are five little-known facts about the fearsome samurai, from their somewhat terrifying social privileges to their first and only colony in the United States.

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Samurai Had the Right to Kill Citizens for Being Disrespectful

The high prestige and special social privileges enjoyed by the samurai are amply demonstrated in the tradition of kiri-sute gomen, roughly translated as “permission to slay.” This gave a samurai the right to strike anyone of a lower class with their sword if they slandered the samurai’s honor. If, for example, a farmer or artisan refused to bow, the samurai could rightfully kill the offender on the spot. It’s not known how often kiri-sute gomen was used, but when it was, the samurai had to follow certain rules. The strike had to be carried out immediately following the offense, and the samurai had to later prove the correctness of their actions in court. Samurai could, potentially, be severely punished for wrongful executions, so they couldn’t walk around willfully killing the commonfolk.

A Masterless Samurai Could Become a Wandering Rōnin

Both the status and salary of a samurai warrior came from the lord, or daimyo, they served. If their lord died, or if the samurai disgraced themselves and lost their patronage, they could find themselves masterless, at which point they became a rōnin. These rōnin often ended up traveling Japan, offering their services to anyone in need of a sword for hire. It was seen as a tragic position, and a far fall from grace for any former samurai. Rōnin were viewed as a problem. Highly trained, armed, and yet leaderless, they had a reputation for troublemaking, banditry, and mercenary activities — and there were a lot of them. At the time of the decisive Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, it’s estimated that there were some 400,000 rōnin in Japan.

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Women Warriors Fought Alongside the Samurai

Within the traditional samurai class, women were typically charged with maintaining the household — as well as defending it. They were therefore trained to use the naginata and a dagger called the kaiken. Some of these women went a step further, receiving the same training in martial arts and strategy as male samurai. Known as onna-musha, female warriors engaged directly in offensive battles as the equals of their male counterparts. Arguably the most famous onna-musha in Japanese history was Tomoe Gozen, who came to prominence during the Genpei War in the late 12th century. Renowned for her bravery, horsemanship, and exceptional skill with a bow and arrow, she famously led 300 samurai against a force of 6,000 enemy fighters — and, according to legend, emerged victorious as one of only five survivors.

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There Were Samurai From Africa, China, and Europe

The samurai were almost exclusively Japanese, but a handful of foreigners were accepted into their ranks. The first was Yasuke, a tall man of African origin (perhaps from Mozambique, according to historians) who arrived in Kyoto in 1579. He caused a sensation, initially due to his race and height — he was a foot taller than the average Japanese man. Under the rule of Oda Nobunaga, a powerful feudal lord, Yasuke was trained in martial arts and eventually became a fully fledged samurai warrior. After Yasuke came four samurai from Joseon (now South Korea), one from China, and four from Europe. This latter group included William Adams from England and Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn of the Netherlands, two navigators who were stranded in Japan together in 1600. When neither man was allowed to leave the country, they ended up serving the shogunate and rising to the rank of samurai.

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There Was a Samurai Colony in California

The only settlement established by samurai outside of Japan — and the first Japanese colony in North America — was the Wakamatsu Tea and Silk Colony in Gold Hill, California. Established on June 8, 1869, the settlement was comprised of 22 people from samurai families (they even brought their swords with them), including farmers and carpenters, who had fled the Boshin War, a civil war that was a precursor to the Satsuma Rebellion of 1877 that effectively ended the samurai class. The colony got off to a bright start, with the planting of tea plants, mulberry trees, and bamboo, all in anticipation of the arrival of further colonists from Japan. But the influx of fresh settlers never came, and the farm soon began to fail. It’s unclear what happened to most of the settlers, but we do know that the historic site is home to the grave of Okei Ito, the first Japanese woman buried on American soil. The colony was also the birthplace of Mary Schnell (the daughter of the colony's founder, John Schnell), the first naturalized Japanese American citizen.

Famous Historical Figures You Didn’t Know Were Related

Robert E. Lee & George Washington

Author Rachel Gresh

March 21, 2024

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Some family trees seem primed for the history books, from the Medicis and Habsburgs to the Rockefellers and Kennedys. These historical relations prove that family does indeed matter. Take for instance the two father-son duos that became U.S. Presidents: John Adams and John Quincy Adams, and George H.W. Bush and George W. Bush. There’s also Queen Victoria of England’s many grandchildren to consider. These famous cousins — among them King George V of Britain, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, and Tsar Nicholas II of Russia (by marriage to Victoria’s granddaughter Alexandra) — went on to rule much of Europe.

Other famous family connections aren’t as obvious, such as the relationship between the real-life inspiration for Dracula and Queen Elizabeth II, or the distant connection between two trailblazing women, Amelia Earhart and Laura Ingalls Wilder. Here are five of the most surprising family ties in history.

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Queen Elizabeth II and Dracula (Vlad the Impaler)

One of Europe’s most mild-tempered monarchs was distantly related to none other than Vlad III, more commonly known as Vlad the Impaler, a ruthless 15th-century Romanian prince who likely inspired Bram Stoker’s Dracula. The relation comes from Queen Elizabeth II’s grandmother Mary of Teck (a princess from Germany’s Württemberg dynasty), who was the wife of England’s King George V. Mary of Teck was a descendant of the merciless Romanian ruler, who had a reputation for executing many of his subjects. The surprising connection between Vlad III and the British royal family has also been acknowledged by Queen Elizabeth II’s son King Charles III, who owns a home in Transylvania (where Vlad once ruled) and is involved in conservation efforts to save the region’s forests.

Robert E. Lee and George Washington

These two Americans were born in Virginia’s Westmoreland County 75 years apart (in 1732 and 1807, respectively), and served as senior generals in two of America’s most influential wars — the Revolutionary War and Civil War. Confederate General Robert E. Lee married Mary Anna Randolph Custis, the daughter of Martha Washington’s grandson (from her first marriage). This means he was also related, by marriage, to the first President of the United States, George Washington. And the unlikely connection between the two figures doesn’t stop there. After the Civil War, Lee became president of Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia, which was named after both men.

Amelia Earhart and Laura Ingalls Wilder

Aviation pioneer Amelia Earhart and acclaimed author Laura Ingalls Wilder are both renowned figures of the 20th century. They’re also distant relatives. Amelia Earhart is remembered as the first female pilot to complete a solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean. Further proving that adventure runs in her bloodline, Earhart is a descendant of Mayflower passenger Richard Warren, and Wilder is descended from the same man. Though the relation is distant (possibly eighth cousins once removed), there are some undeniable similarities between the two women. Both are from Kansas, the setting of part of Wilder’s most famous book, Little House on the Prairie, and Wilder published her first book, Little House in the Big Woods, in 1932, the same year that Earhart made her famous transatlantic flight.

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Queen Elizabeth I and Mary, Queen of Scots

Two of the most famous female monarchs in history were first cousins once removed — despite the fact that they never met, and one ordered to have the other executed. Mary, Queen of Scots, was the daughter of King James V of Scotland and his French wife, Mary of Guise. Her great-uncle was King Henry VIII of England, the father of Queen Elizabeth I (whose mother was Anne Boleyn). Mary and Elizabeth shared the same royal grandparents, King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York, but the cousins were forced to be enemies due to years of violent wars over the English and Scottish thrones. After decades of keeping Mary imprisoned for fear that she would overtake England, Elizabeth ordered the execution of her cousin at Fotheringhay Castle in 1587.

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Presidents James Madison and Zachary Taylor

The fourth President of the United States, James Madison, and the 12th President, Zachary Taylor, were second cousins. They share a great-grandfather, Colonel James Taylor of Virginia. The two politicians were alive at the same time and were known to correspond occasionally. Madison, one of the Founding Fathers, created the framework for the U.S. Constitution and also had a hand in initiating the War of 1812 against Great Britain. Taylor was a member of the Whig Party and died 16 months into office in 1850. He was a captain in the War of 1812 and later became one of the top generals in the Mexican-American War. In 1849, while serving as President, Taylor held a funeral in Washington, D.C., to honor his late cousin’s wife, Dolley Madison.

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Conquistadors Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro

Francisco Pizarro and Hernán Cortés were 16th-century Spanish conquistadors known for colonizing much of Peru and Mexico, respectively. They were also distant cousins. The family connection was through Cortés’ maternal grandmother, Leonor Pizarro, who was related to Pizarro’s ancestors. The duo didn’t work together but traveled to Central and South America around the same time. Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire and founded the city of Lima, Peru, while Cortés overthrew the Aztec Empire and took control of Mexico for the Spanish crown. Pizarro was killed in his palace in Lima in 1541 by rival conquistador Diego de Almagro. Cortés wished to return to Mexico before his death, but he died in 1547 in Seville, Spain, disgraced after being accused of poisoning the colonial governor, Luis Ponce de León.

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Writers Mary Wollstonecraft and Mary Shelley

This talented mother-daughter duo is credited with writing some of the most celebrated works in English literature, though their styles and subjects are very different. Mary Wollstonecraft was an early feminist who penned 1792’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, a scathing review of gender inequalities, which argued that young girls should receive the same education as boys. It is among the first prominent feminist works, and Wollstonecraft is regarded as one of the founders of feminist philosophy. Her daughter, who was also named Mary Wollstonecraft and became Mary Shelley upon her marriage to poet Percy Shelley, became a famous writer in her own right. But Shelley took a different path than her mother, gravitating toward fiction. She published her most famous novel, Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, in 1818. Like her mother, Shelley was considered a trailblazer in her writing discipline, and Frankenstein is regarded as one of the first science fiction novels.

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