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Pastes and Oils

Early humans also used primitive versions of sunscreen made from natural compounds. Red ochre, a type of claylike iron oxide, has been mixed with water and applied as a paste to the skin since the time of early Homo sapiens. This mixture was used for ceremonial reasons, but scientists believe it may also have served as a physical barrier against the sun.

Ancient Egyptians, meanwhile, used skin treatments made from ingredients such as rice bran (which absorbs UV light), jasmine (to help repair sun-damaged skin), and lupine (believed to lighten the complexion). Ancient Greece had its own approach: Olive oil was commonly applied to the skin between 800 and 500 BCE. While it offered limited protection, modern studies have found it has a natural sun protection factor (SPF) of about 8 — enough to slightly reduce burning, though far lower than today’s common SPF 30 (the minimum recommended by dermatologists).

Like with ochre, other pastes were made from a variety of natural compounds, including mud and clay. These were used not only as camouflage or ceremonial decoration, but also as protection from the sun. Zinc oxide was used in India as early as 500 BCE, and water reeds and spices were turned into sunscreen by the Sama-Bajau peoples of Southeast Asia around 840 CE. Indigenous peoples in the Americas, meanwhile, used sunflower oil, pine needles, western hemlock bark, and deer fat, while thanaka, a mixture made from ground bark and water, has been used in Myanmar (formerly Burma) for more than 2,000 years.

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Masks

Over time, in some societies — including in ancient Egypt and later in Europe and parts of Asia — protecting the skin became a mark of social status. A pale complexion signaled that you could afford to avoid outdoor manual labor and instead spend your days indoors or in the shade.

In Egypt, this desired look was achieved through use of parasols and topical skin treatments that blocked the sun. In Europe in the 16th century — particularly in France and England — upper-class women wore striking-looking visard masks to prevent sunburn and preserve that pale complexion.

The visard mask was made of black velvet with a silk interior lining, and its only features were a slight protrusion for the nose and small holes for the eyes and mouth. The masks weren’t just eerie to look at, either — they were rather unsettling to wear. Most versions didn’t have straps and were instead held in place by a bead or button gripped between clenched teeth; the wearer couldn’t speak while the mask was on.

By the early 1700s, visard masks had spread beyond the aristocracy, and beyond their intended purpose of preventing sunburns. Women of various social classes wore them, including sex workers, who often used them to discreetly enter public spaces such as theaters. In 1704, Britain’s Queen Anne even banned visard masks from the theater, but they’d already lost their status among the elite and eventually faded out of use.

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Tannins and Trusty SPF

By the end of the 19th century, dermatologists confirmed that prolonged exposure to the sun’s UV rays could inflame or burn the skin, and scientists began experiments to develop effective and suitable topical sun protection. In 1878, Austrian physician Otto Veiel promoted tannins — natural compounds found in many plants — as viable sun protection, but they also discolored the skin.

In 1891, a German doctor experimented with what was likely the first true attempt at a chemical sunscreen, a quinine-based ointment to treat skin sensitivity to sunlight. And in the early 1900s, German physician Paul Unna came up with another sunscreen precursor, a paste made of natural ingredients such as chestnut extract. Ultimately, these early products didn’t apply well, either discoloring the skin or going on too thick, and so the experiments to find a better solution continued.

It wasn’t until the mid-1900s that sunscreens began to resemble what we use today. In 1942, the U.S. military tapped the American Medical Association to study products or substances that could help protect soldiers from getting sunburned during particularly hot World War II Pacific campaigns. The solution was a thick, red, veterinary petroleum salve, also known as “red vet pet.” It was waterproof, durable, nontoxic, inexpensive, and, most importantly, relatively effective.

Florida pharmacist Benjamin Green had served in the Air Force throughout the war, and in 1944, he began experimenting with ways to make the sticky substance more appealing. He added ingredients such as cocoa butter and coconut oil, creating a smoother, nicely scented lotion — the earliest version of what later became Coppertone. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, sunscreen formulas continued to improve in texture and ingredients, offering broader protection against UVA and UVB rays, and by the 1970s and ’80s, sunscreen was widely marketed for sunburn protection and as a tanning aid.

Today, sun protection can be as subtle as a swipe of SPF lip balm or as advanced as UV-reflective clothing and tinted window film. The methods may have changed, but the instinct remains the same: When the sun beats down, we find ways to keep cool, stay covered, and avoid the burn.

7 Major Historical Events That Happened in June

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Author Timothy Ott

May 22, 2025

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For those who live in the Northern Hemisphere, there’s something about the culmination of ever-warming weather, the full ripening of foliage, and the seemingly endless daylight hours that makes June a magical time of year. And while many of us harbor fond recollections of beachfront jaunts or backyard games that took place as spring swept into summer, June also comes with a collective well of memories that transpired within its 30-day span.

Here are seven historical events from Junes of both recent vintage and centuries past. From crucial battles to transformative treaties and political scandals, each has stood the test of time as a major checkpoint of the shared human experience.

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June 15, 1215: King John Affixes His Seal to the Magna Carta

King John’s ascent to the English throne in 1199 seemingly brought nothing but trouble for the monarch, who subsequently lost control of several French territories, was excommunicated by Pope Innocent III, and faced an uprising from powerful barons who chafed at high taxes. Seeking to at least pacify the barons, John agreed to a series of terms that provided specific limits on the king’s power over matters of land ownership, debts, and the election of church officials, signing the agreement on June 15, 1215.

Although peace between the two sides was short-lived, the charter was revised and reissued multiple times over the years, and the 1225 version of what is now known as the Magna Carta is recognized as the definitive issue. And while it was never intended to define the course of human rights beyond the immediate feudal concerns, the document did exactly that with its clauses that guaranteed basic liberties and justice for citizens, words that later influenced the United States Declaration of Independence and Constitution.

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June 18, 1815: Napoleon Loses the Battle of Waterloo

Making a triumphant return from exile in March 1815, Napoleon Bonaparte embarked on what became his Hundred Days campaign to reestablish dominance over mainland Europe. His renewed military ambitions commenced in Belgium, where a split French army separately engaged forces under Prussian Field Marshal Gebhard von Blücher and England’s Duke of Wellington on June 16.

Two days later, Napoleon advanced on the duke’s men stationed outside the village of Waterloo, Belgium. However, the combination of superior defensive positioning and questionable tactical decisions by the attackers enabled the opposing force to hold steady until Prussian reinforcements arrived. By nightfall, not even Napoleon’s feared French Imperial Guard could stem the losing tide. Napoleon is said to have fled from the battlefield in tears, and he soon followed with his abdication and surrender to the British, resulting in another exile — this one permanent.

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June 19, 1865: Federal Troops Enforce Emancipation in Texas, Inspiring Juneteenth

Although General Robert E. Lee’s surrender on April 9, 1865, is generally considered the end of the American Civil War, many Confederate-controlled areas continued resisting the inevitable defeat and lifestyle changes as long as possible. As such, emancipation of enslaved people was not actually enforced in Texas until June 19 that year, when Major General Gordon Granger and a federal force descended on Galveston with an order declaring an end to the institution of slavery once and for all.

Although many enslavers delayed relaying the news to their enslaved workers, or refused to comply until forced, members of Texas’ newly freed community marked the first commemoration of the date the following year. The regional celebrations gradually spread as Black people in the South established new roots throughout the country, although it was more than a century before Texas became the first of the 50 states to make Juneteenth a holiday in 1979, and it took another four decades from there for the day to become a federal holiday in 2021.

June 3, 1937: The Duke of Windsor Marries Wallis Simpson

When King George V died in January 1936, his eldest son followed long-standing tradition in the United Kingdom by assuming the crown as Edward VIII. However, Edward was romantically involved with American socialite Wallis Simpson, who had divorced her first husband and was still married to her second, and the new king refused to end their relationship despite warnings that the Church of England and Parliament would never accept her as queen.

Edward subsequently — to the shock of the nation — abdicated the throne on December 10, passing the kingdom to his younger brother George VI. The following day, he famously announced over the airwaves, “I have found it impossible to carry on the heavy burden of responsibility and to discharge the duties of king, as I would wish to do, without the help and support of the woman I love.” Simpson and Edward cemented their controversial union with a wedding at France’s Chateau de Cande on June 3, 1937, and they remained largely out of the limelight as George VI, followed by his daughter, Elizabeth II, carried on the royal line.

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June 6, 1944: D-Day Commences on the Beaches of Normandy

Following a brief postponement due to bad weather, the Allied armies of World War II embarked on their long-planned crossing of the English Channel with the largest amphibious assault in history on June 6, 1944. The opening round of Operation Overlord, remembered simply as D-Day, brought more than 130,000 troops across 7,000 ships and landing craft to five beaches along the coastline of Normandy, France.

Despite a deception campaign designed to point German defenses toward other landing spots, resistance proved fierce at the section dubbed Omaha Beach, where U.S. forces faced a torrent of machine-gun fire raining down from steep cliffs. But Omaha and the other four beaches — Utah, Gold, Juno, and Sword — were secure by the end of the day, providing a base for some 850,000 troops to reach Normandy by the end of June, and generating the crucial momentum needed to help bring the war to a close within a year’s time.

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June 17, 1972: The Arrest of Five Burglars at DNC Headquarters Ignites the Watergate Scandal

In the early morning hours of June 17, 1972, a security guard at the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C., summoned police to apprehend five men who were poking around the Democratic National Committee headquarters. Thus commenced perhaps the most consequential political scandal in U.S. history, which culminated with the imprisonment of several White House staffers and the resignation of President Richard Nixon.

The Nixon campaign’s links to the break-in were uncovered by Washington Post reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein (with an able assist from their insider informant, “Deep Throat”), and the dominoes began to fall with the convening of a Senate committee and appointment of a special prosecutor to probe the links in the spring of 1973. Despite Nixon’s repeated denials, it was his own words that provided the “smoking gun” for investigators by way of taped conversations in the Oval Office. After the Supreme Court rejected Nixon’s attempts to withhold all the tapes, and the House Judiciary Committee passed three articles of impeachment, the embattled president acknowledged the writing on the wall and announced he was stepping down on August 8, 1974.

June 18, 1983: Sally Ride Becomes the First American Woman in Space

Shortly before earning her doctorate in physics from Stanford University in 1978, Sally Ride came across a newspaper advertisement seeking recruits for NASA’s astronaut program; she soon became one of six women and 35 overall candidates accepted from a pool of 8,000 applicants, setting her on course for a historic space flight. The big moment came on June 18, 1983, when Ride blasted off with four crew members aboard the space shuttle Challenger to become the first American woman in space.

Following the successful six-day mission, which involved the use of the shuttle’s robot arm to deploy and retrieve a satellite, Ride returned to orbit the following October. She was even named to a crew for a third mission, before being diverted to an investigation team in the wake of the tragic Challenger explosion in January 1986. Ride went on to serve as a physics professor and director of the University of California’s Space Institute, before launching the Sally Ride Science outreach program for students. While she wasn’t the first woman to lift off from Earth — two Soviet cosmonauts, Valentina Tereshkova and Svetlana Savitskaya, preceded her — Ride’s journey nevertheless stands as a seminal moment in the American space program and an inspiration to those who dare to reach for the stars.

What the World Smelled Like Before Industrialization

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Author Bess Lovejoy

May 8, 2025

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Before the churn of factories and the tang of coal smoke came to dominate modern life during and after the Industrial Revolution, the smells of daily life were intensely organic, shaped by proximity to animals, bodies, plants, and decay. Urban and rural environments offered distinct olfactory experiences, but both were pungent, earthy, and changed with the seasons.

Once industrialization and modern sanitation systems had taken hold in the industrialized world by the mid-1800s (following a transformation that lasted about a century), the smells of waste, sewage, manure, and other organic materials were significantly less common, even in rural areas. Changes in agriculture, the decline of small cottage industries, and advances in chemistry also pushed scents away from earthy and toward synthetic. But understanding these historical odors offers a visceral glimpse into how people once experienced the world — as they say, “the nose knows.”

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What Preindustrial Cities Smelled Like

Before industrialization transformed cities in Britain and the U.S., urban areas were often crowded, unsanitary, and deeply aromatic environments. Unfortunately, some of the most dominant smells were related to waste, both human and animal.

In an era before modern plumbing, human waste flowed unchecked in waterways, pooled in cesspits, or was collected in “night soil” buckets to be used later as fertilizer. Open gutters often carried sewage and refuse, while heaps of offal and carts of dung were common sights — and smells — on city streets.

Animals were also a major contributor to the aromatic landscape, such as it was. Horses were ubiquitous in cities, and their manure (and occasional carcasses) filled the air with ammonia and other not-so-pleasant smells. In New York City there were 10,000 horses by 1835, each producing 15 to 30 pounds of manure and a quart of urine. In her book Taming Manhattan: Environmental Battles in the Antebellum City, historian Catherine McNeur describes how rotten food and dead animals mixed with “enormous piles of manure to create a stench particularly offensive” in the heat of a New York summer.

Meanwhile, in England, the River Thames served as a dumping ground for sewage, emitting overpowering odors that were also especially ripe in the summer. As in America, streets were littered with horse manure, and industries such as tanneries and slaughterhouses contributed to the pervasive foul smells.

In fact, urban centers on both sides of the Atlantic were full of small-scale trades and markets — tanners, butchers, fishmongers — each adding their own pungency. Tanning leather required soaking hides in urine and lime, producing a rank, acrid scent. Butcher shops dumped blood and offal into gutters. In the U.S., industries such as slaughterhouses and leather tanners were called the “offensive trades” because of how they offended the nose, according to historian Melanie Kiechle.

Street vendors contributed too: Roasting chestnuts, boiling tripe, and frying fish could be welcome or foul scents, depending on your appetite and the weather.

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What Rural Areas Smelled Like

The countryside offered a different aromatic profile — still strong, but more vegetal and animal in character. Farmland, livestock, and the rhythms of nature defined rural scentscapes.

Agricultural areas were steeped in the scent of animals. Cows, pigs, sheep, and chickens produced manure that lingered in the air, particularly near barns or pens. Hay, wet wool, and milking sheds had their own distinctive odors. Plowed fields released earthy, loamy smells. Manure was prized as fertilizer, especially human waste in places such as colonial New England, where the outhouse “night soil” was repurposed.

Crops also shaped rural smells. In spring and summer, the air might carry the scent of blooming clover, ripening grain, or the resin of pine forests. In autumn, apples, root vegetables, and fermenting fruit filled the air. Occasionally, the burning of wood or peat for heating and cooking added a smoky aroma, alongside smoke from hearths and outdoor fires, especially in the colder months.

But while the countryside generally smelled better than the city, not all its smells were good. Rotting vegetation, dead animals, and stagnant water introduced more offensive smells, while ponds, privies, and uncollected waste could create swampy or sulfurous odors.

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In both rural and urban areas, humans contributed their own smells. In an age before deodorant, daily bathing, or sanitation infrastructure, body odors could be strong. People often wore wool, which retained scents. Scented pomades, herbal sachets, and handkerchiefs were used to mask unpleasant aromas, at least for those who could afford to buy them. Planting sweet-smelling flowers and greenery, such as lilac, was a common method for combatting bad smells, as was wearing a nosegay (a scented flower) on one’s lapel.

Yet for most people, strong and not necessarily pleasant scents were simply part of life. Odors that would be considered offensive today were normal, even unnoticed, in the preindustrial world.

Urban reformers in the 18th and 19th centuries eventually began to link smell with disease (so-called “miasma theory”), sparking sanitation movements that transformed the olfactory landscape by the late 1800s. Today, of course, billion-dollar industries exist to deodorize and perfume both our bodies and living spaces. In the modern world, it’s nearly impossible to imagine how our ancestors tolerated the aromas that were once seen as simply part of being alive.

7 Symbols on the Dollar Bill — and What They Mean

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Author Timothy Ott

May 1, 2025

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For most people, the only thing that matters about cash is the value printed on each bill and the total amount filling their wallets. But folks with a sharp eye and a little more time on their hands may notice the intricate design details on the various denominations. Along with the portrait of a famous statesman, U.S. currency features a potpourri of images that range from intriguing to downright mystifying.

Perhaps no bills pack a more befuddling display into an innocuous package than the $1 note. The humble dollar bill offers a rich tapestry of symbolism for those who take the time to examine the craftsmanship a little more closely. Here are the explanations behind seven of the dollar bill’s more perplexing elements.

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Serial Numbers

To start with perhaps the least mysterious, the obverse (or front) of the bill features several numbers. The longer ones off to the top right and lower left of George Washington’s portrait are the serial number, with the first letter of each series identifying the Federal Reserve Bank that issued the note. That same letter appears in the middle of the Federal Reserve District seal, to the left of Washington, and also corresponds to the four numbers located near the number “1” at each of the four corners. For example, the Second Federal Reserve District is New York, so a $1 bill from that district would have a prominent “B” within the Federal Reserve District seal and at the front of the two serial numbers, as well as the number “2” near each of the four corners.”

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Treasury Seal

Also on the front, the green imprint to the right of George Washington is the U.S. Treasury seal. Designed by Francis Hopkinson, a New Jersey delegate to the Continental Congress, the Treasury seal features a set of balanced scales, which represents justice. The inverted "V," known as a chevron, is lined by 13 stars, symbolic of the original 13 colonies. At the bottom of the seal, the depiction of a key stands for authority.

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Bald Eagle

The reverse of the dollar bill features the two sides of the Great Seal of the United States, created in 1782 by Secretary of Congress Charles Thomson from the recommendations of three committees. The front of the seal, to the right of the word “ONE” emblazoned across the middle, features the American bald eagle, wings spread as if in flight. The eagle grips 13 arrows in its left talon, emblematic of war, and an olive branch signifying peace in the right talon. The bird’s head is notably turned in the direction of the olive branch to exemplify the nation's preference for peace.

Famously, Benjamin Franklin objected to the choice of an eagle as the national symbol; the statesman wrote that he preferred the "more respectable" turkey. The bird's presentation on currency also proved a source of controversy on one occasion. The 1801 U.S. silver dollar inadvertently showcased the arrows, rather than the olive branch, in the eagle's right talon, apparently a signal to Europeans that the young nation was primed for war. This misunderstanding was corrected by 1807 when a reissued coin switched the positions of the bundles.

Shield

According to Thompson’s official explanation of the design, the shield, or escutcheon, stands in front of the eagle "without any other supporters to denote that the United States of America ought to rely on their own Virtue." The shield displays 13 vertical lines of alternating shades to represent the first states, which together prop up a horizontal band that stands for the unifying force of Congress. While the bill mostly features varying shades of green and white, the original seal provides even more significance when seen in full color. The vertical lines are alternately red, representing hardiness and valor, and white, for purity and innocence, while the blue horizontal band symbolizes vigilance, perseverance, and justice.

Stars

Above the eagle's head, a conglomeration of 13 stars floats in the middle of a glory-like display of light and cloud. Again, the 13 stars represent the original 13 colonies, here emerging as a new nation among the world's sovereign entities as a new constellation would appear among the other stars in the sky.

Latin Inscriptions

The back of the bill also features several Latin inscriptions. The eagle clutches a scroll in its beak that reads E Pluribus Unum, which translates to "Out of Many, One." Possibly borrowed from the London-published Gentlemen's Magazine, which was well known among educated Americans in the late 18th century, the motto encapsulates the cause of the American states. Across the back of the bill, which features the reverse side of the Great Seal, the phrase Annuit Coeptis above the pyramid translates to "Providence Has Favored Our Undertakings." Below, the inscription Novus Ordo Seclorum, meaning "A New Order of the Ages," refers to the inception of the U.S. government.

It was in large part that last phrase that resulted in the Great Seal being featured on the dollar bill. While earlier printings had different designs, President Franklin D. Roosevelt believed that the phrase "A New Order of the Ages" would remind the public of his New Deal, resulting in the bill's reformatting in 1935.

Pyramid and Eye

Perhaps the most cryptic and controversial symbols to adorn the dollar bill are the pyramid with its detached capstone and embedded eye. The pyramid signifies "strength and duration," according to Thompson, though others suggest the structure's unfinished form represents America's status as an unfinished creation. The pyramid consists of 13 rows, with the year of the nation's founding printed in Roman numerals on the lowest level. Meanwhile, the giant floating eye, traditionally known as the Eye of Providence, was explained by the designer as another of the "signal interpositions of providence in favor of the American cause."

These particular symbols have been fodder for conspiracy theorists who believe U.S. currency is filled with references to shadowy organizations such as the Freemasons. However, the Eye of Providence had already been a well-known Christian symbol of God's benevolent watchfulness by the time the Great Seal of the United States was created in 1782. The incorporation of both the eye and the pyramid into the Great Seal predated their widespread use among the Freemasons.

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Bonus: Owl/Spider

Depending on the eye of the beholder, a white speck perched on the top left border of the top right “1” on the front of the bill appears to be a spider or an owl when magnified. Again, this piques the interest of the conspiracy-minded who note that an owl is a symbol of the Illuminati. However, there is no mention of a deliberately created creature in that area among the founding documents, and other sharp-eyed observers have pointed out that this alleged symbol is more likely part of the dollar’s webbed background design.

How Is a New Pope Chosen?

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Author Timothy Ott

May 1, 2025

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On March 13, 2013, the former Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio, archbishop of Buenos Aires, Argentina, appeared for the first time as Pope Francis, the 266th head of the Roman Catholic Church. Following his death on April 21, 2025, the church turned once again to an ancient tradition that’s been in place for centuries: the election of a new pope.

There were some novelties associated with Pope Francis’ ascension to Bishop of Rome: He was the first pope from the Americas, as well as the first to assume the name of Francis. He was also the rare pope to take charge while his predecessor was still alive, after an aging Benedict XVI became the first pontiff in nearly 600 years to voluntarily resign.

But for all the unusual components of his particular case, Francis’ assumption of the papacy still adhered to the traditions of the church — some that are relatively new and others that have been faithfully followed for centuries. Here’s a look at exactly how the Catholic Church elects a new pope.

The Process of Voting Began in the Middle Ages

The origins of papal elections are a little murky. Some evidence suggests that St. Peter, generally considered the first pope, designated a group of two dozen priests and deacons to name his successor. Other sources say that the second pope, Linus, was elected from a pool of neighboring bishops and the Roman clergy.

After Roman Emperor Constantine I legitimized the spread of Christianity in Rome in the early fourth century, subsequent generations of European monarchs sought to influence control over the increasingly influential post of bishop of Rome. This was exemplified by the actions of the Holy Roman Emperors Otto III and Henry III, who installed a combined half-dozen popes during their respective reigns in the late 10th and mid-11th centuries.

The first step toward the modern voting process came in 1059, when Pope Nicholas II decreed that only cardinal-bishops would be allowed to select a pope. Another major change came in 1274, when Pope Gregory X codified the “conclave” system that required voters to be sequestered until a new pope was chosen — a system still used today.

Later pontiffs continued to modify the rules as they saw fit. In 1970, Pope Paul VI determined that only cardinals below the age of 80 were eligible to vote, and in 1975, he established a maximum number of electors at 120.

While some form of a two-thirds voting majority has been required since 1179, Pope John Paul II decreed in 1996 that the winner could be determined by a simple majority after about 12 or 13 days of deadlocked voting. His successor, Benedict XVI, reintroduced the full two-thirds vote to prevent blocs from holding on to a 50% majority until the time when that percentage would be enough to decide the election.

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The Secret Conclave System

Nowadays, after the death or resignation of a pope, the designated cardinals — including bishops and other church officials — are summoned to the Vatican. When all confirmed electors are accounted for, the conclave commences with the sequestering of cardinals in the Sistine Chapel. All phones, televisions, and communications with the outside world are removed, with only two doctors and select members of the Vatican staff permitted to enter the secure premises.

On the first day of the conclave, the cardinals celebrate Mass in the morning before proceeding to the chapel, where they have the option of holding a single round of voting in the afternoon. For this process, the most junior elector randomly selects the names of nine colleagues: three “scrutineers” to record the votes, three “infirmarii” to collect the ballots from any sick cardinals confined to their quarters, and three “revisers” to check the work of the others.

Each of the voters receives a ballot with the printed words Eligio in Summum Pontificem ("I elect as Supreme Pontiff") and a space to enter their choice. Instructed to write in a manner that does not clearly identify the voter, and forbidden from casting a vote for themselves, the electors then fold the paper twice so the name is concealed. Any baptized Roman Catholic man can be elected pope, although it's been a cardinal every time since 1379.

Each cardinal brings his ballot to an urn at the altar, and repeats the oath in Latin, which translates to, "I call as my witness Christ the Lord, who will be my judge, that my vote is given to the one who, before God, I think should be elected."

After all the cardinals have taken their turn, the designated scrutineers count the ballots to make sure the number corresponds with the known number of electors. One of them then reads the names on each ballot out loud, and pierces each page with a needle through the word Eligio (“I elect”) to collect the ballots on a single thread.

On all but the first day, when voting begins in the afternoon, a failure to elect a pope in one round of voting is immediately followed by a second round. From that point forward, two successive rounds can be held during the morning session, with up to two more held in the afternoon.

If no winner emerges after successive rounds, the ballots are burned in a stove in the back of the chapel with a chimney that reveals the results to the outside world. Except for on the first day when there's just one round of voting, the burning happens after the conclusion of two voting rounds in the morning, and again after two rounds in the afternoon. The activation of a cartridge releases chemicals that produce black smoke, a signal that the election remains ongoing.

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The Winner Adopts His New Name

On the other hand, if a candidate receives two-thirds of the vote, that outcome will be signaled with white smoke from the burning ballots.

Once a two-thirds vote is achieved, the winner is asked whether he accepts the results, and what name he wishes to adopt as pope. He then receives the homage of his former fellow cardinals and is taken to be fitted for his papal robes in the Vatican’s Room of Tears, a small chamber next to the Sistine Chapel.

The new pontiff is then introduced to the world with an appearance on the balcony over St. Peter’s Basilica, a continuation of the chain of command that began when the building’s namesake was said to have accepted the enormous responsibility some two millennia ago.

Why Do We Celebrate May Day?

May Day festivities, 1891 — Credit: Print Collector/ Hulton Archive via Getty Images

Author Timothy Ott

April 24, 2025

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Most dates that are recognized as national holidays or at least entail widespread celebrations can enjoy that particular 24-hour designation to themselves on the calendar. It’s rare for a widely acknowledged holiday — say, Halloween or Presidents Day — to share top billing with another commemoration. Which brings us to the outlier of May Day.

For hundreds of years across much of Europe, May 1 was celebrated as a time when spring was in full bloom, with outdoor communal festivities highlighting the merriment enjoyed by participants who no longer had to fear winter’s wrath. However, for more than a century now, May Day has had a more serious significance. Also known as International Workers’ Day, it’s recognized as a time to mark the ongoing struggles for improved labor conditions — and by extension, human rights.

Although neither version of May Day is formally acknowledged as a holiday in the United States, both are more widely known internationally, and in some areas dually celebrated. So, what exactly is May Day, and how has the significance of the day evolved?

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May Day Originated From Pagan Celebrations

May Day as a commemoration of spring has its origins in older pagan traditions. The Romans celebrated the six-day festival of Floralia from late April into early May, an event marked by various competitions, theatrical presentations, and the releasing of hares and deer as symbols of fertility.

Farther north, the people of Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Mann celebrated May 1 with the Gaelic festival of Beltane. Marking the start of summer, Beltane was traditionally observed with the lighting of bonfires and collection of flowers.

By the late Middle Ages, these events had coalesced into the May Day celebrations that were held through much of Europe. Perhaps the most famous rite associated with the day is dancing around the maypole. First noted in the 14th century, the maypole was originally a full tree hauled into a village, before evolving into a shorn wooden pole. Other May Day traditions surfaced later, including the appearance of the Jack-in-the-Green and the selection of the May Queen.

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May Day Celebrations Were Discouraged in America

Despite — or perhaps because of — the unbridled thrill enjoyed by the masses on this particular day, the Puritans sought to crack down on May Day festivities in 17th-century England. They briefly succeeded in the aftermath of the First English Civil War, resulting in the banning of maypoles, before the tradition resumed with the Stuart Restoration in 1660.

In the American colonies, attempts by Puritan settlers to stamp out these celebrations met with more success. After merchant Thomas Morton spearheaded a May Day celebration at the Massachusetts settlement of Merry Mount in 1627, neighboring Puritans shut down the festivities, destroyed the maypole, and sent Morton back to England. In the wake of such a public show of disapproval, May Day never quite gained full traction in the colonies.

By the late 19th century, May Day experienced a rebirth in the United States. Influential social reformers, concerned about the leisure activities of the country's swelling immigrant population, reintroduced May Day as a wholesome outdoor activity in schools across the country. Along with partaking in traditional activities such as dancing around the maypole, participants were known to pin homemade May baskets on the doors of neighbors and would-be romantic partners.

Although the celebration of May Day's springtime festivities remained common on U.S. college campuses well into the 1900s, the tradition began to abate in the second half of the century.

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Labor Struggles Inspired International Workers' Day

Meanwhile, the rise of industrialism and increasingly dangerous working conditions in growing cities sparked another wave of social reformers to take action. By the 1880s, organized labor unions in the U.S. had developed enough leverage to stage strikes in support of eight-hour workdays. One widely coordinated strike took place on May 1, 1886, when some 500,000 workers across the country took to the streets in protest.

Three days later, another gathering near Chicago's Haymarket Square turned deadly when an unknown agitator threw a bomb at approaching policemen, prompting the police to open fire on the crowd. The "Haymarket Affair" was a seminal but divisive incident. Eight radical labor activists were convicted of conspiracy to commit murder in what was criticized as an unfair trial. A few years later, both the American Federation of Labor and the International Socialist Congress called for more protests on May 1, 1890, launching the tradition of International Workers' Day, which is also known as May Day.

Although the fight for fair labor practices was largely considered a worthy cause, the faction that memorialized the martyrs of the Haymarket Affair proved more divisive due to its association with violent anarchists and anticapitalists. Meanwhile, many states had already established a day to commemorate workers in early September, a custom that gained the federal stamp of approval when President Grover Cleveland signed a bill recognizing Labor Day as a national holiday in 1894. International Workers' Day/May Day subsequently never quite caught on as a mainstream American tradition, although the idea continued to garner momentum beyond the country's borders.

May 1 Is Often Held as a Day of Protest

Around the world, May 1 continues to be associated with protests, demonstrations, and the rights of the people. For much of the 20th century in the Soviet Union, it was a day to celebrate the success of communism with military parades. In response, in 1955, Pope Pius XII designated May 1 as the day of the feast of St. Joseph the Worker.

In both 1970 and 1971, May 1 was earmarked for major demonstrations against the Vietnam War in the United States. The protest theme continued with the Great American Boycott (also known as A Day Without an Immigrant) on May 1, 2006, and protest remains a crucial component of the day's observance around the world.

International Workers' Day continues to be a relevant and urgent cause for many people. But the urge to celebrate the arrival of warm breezes and colorful flowers holds its own immutable power, and as the permanent maypoles in locales such as England’s Welford-on-Avon suggest, it’s unlikely that people will abandon this ancient celebration of spring anytime soon.

What Knowledge Did We Lose With the Library of Alexandria?

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Author Tony Dunnell

April 10, 2025

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The famous story of the burning of the Library of Alexandria, and the centuries of knowledge that went up in flames along with it, is often told as a single dramatic event — but that’s somewhat misleading. While fires did occur, the library wasn’t destroyed all at once. Rather, it succumbed to a slow decline over centuries. Its destruction is now shrouded in myth and mystery, but what is certain is that the Library of Alexandria was one of the largest and most significant collections of the ancient world, and its eventual loss was an intellectual tragedy.

The Fabled Burning

Likely established during the reign of Ptolemy II in the early third century BCE, the Library of Alexander formed part of a larger research institute in Alexandria, Egypt, called the Mouseion (meaning “shrine of the Muses,” the origin of the word “museum”). This great undertaking represented humanity’s most ambitious attempt to collect and preserve human knowledge.

The library flourished for some six centuries, but by the fifth century CE it had all but ceased to exist. The infamous — and often overstated — fire occurred during Julius Caesar’s occupation of Alexandria in 48 BCE, when he ordered his troops to set fire to enemy ships in the harbor, possibly causing some collateral damage to the library. But Caesar certainly didn’t burn down the whole library. In reality, the collection’s slow demise was due to various factors, many of which were tied to Alexandria’s centuries-long decline as an intellectual center. The library’s books were sold or destroyed, its buildings were eventually razed or converted into churches or mosques, and, in the end, the library simply faded away.

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What Was in the Library?

Exactly what happened to the ancient library and precisely what was lost when it ceased to exist remain areas of debate among historians. We do know that the Ptolemy dynasty that ruled Egypt from 305 to 30 BCE sought books from far and wide. The bulk of the books were written in Greek, but other languages, including Egyptian, were also represented in the vast collection. Estimates of the total number of books vary, but it’s possible that the library, at its height, contained between 200,000 and 700,000 books — by far the greatest collection of human knowledge ever assembled at that time.

According to historical records, the archives contained works by many of the famous Greek writers of classical antiquity. This likely included the philosophers Plato, Aristotle, and Pythagoras; the historian and geographer Herodotus; and the dramatic poets Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The works of Aristotle were among the library’s biggest treasures, possibly acquired through a large sum of money. There were also medical texts by Hippocrates and scientific tracts by Thales, Democritus, and Anaximander.

What Knowledge Was Lost

It's worth noting that even if the library had burned down in its entirety, its major works would not all have been lost. In many cases, copies (or the originals) would have been kept in other collections, whether in Egypt or beyond. According to historian Garrett Ryan, all “the most important [works] were widely disseminated elsewhere. What perished with the library were, overwhelmingly, lesser-known works of literature and philosophy, commentaries and monographs: all the residue and introspection of an extremely sophisticated literary culture.”

One often-cited example of what was lost are the works of the Archaic Greek poet Sappho. Sappho composed 10,000 lines of poetry over her lifetime, which historians believe were collected into nine books held at the Library of Alexandria. Today, only about 650 of those lines survive. It’s sometimes claimed that her body of work was lost with the destruction of the library, but that is speculation; the nine-volume tome might have endured as far as the Middle Ages.

As with Sappho, there is a tendency for any lost ancient works to be linked with the Library of Alexandria, often without strong supporting evidence. It’s perhaps a testament to the library’s enduring influence and fame that so many lost tomes are connected with it — but in all likelihood, most of these texts were simply lost to time.

Still, the loss of any works valuable enough to be housed in the Library of Alexandria marks a significant blow to scholars both then and now. Each book or scroll destroyed — whether through fire, mishandling, or simple decay — represents untold stories, forgotten discoveries, and intellectual achievements now vanished. In this sense, the Library of Alexandria has long stood as a reminder of the fragility of human knowledge and the importance of preserving intellectual heritage.

What Did Cars Do Before Windshield Wipers?

Windshield wiper, 1953 — Credit: John Chillingworth/ Picture Post via Getty Images

Author Nicole Villeneuve

April 6, 2025

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The earliest cars were a far cry from the high-tech machines we drive today. Even outside of modern amenities such as backup cameras and Bluetooth connectivity, very basic features that we now take for granted didn’t exist — including a way to clear water off the windshield. In rain or snow, early drivers had to get hands-on just to see the road ahead.

In fact, the earliest cars didn’t even have windshields, let alone wipers, and people parked their cars in carriage houses or barns when not in use. German engineer Carl Benz patented the first gas-powered vehicle in 1886, generally thought of as the world’s first automobile, and as the motor vehicle evolved, so did the need for better design and functionality. In 1908, Henry Ford’s introduction of the Model T marked a major shift, making cars more affordable and accessible for everyday use. Yet even the Tin Lizzie, as it was nicknamed, was not a fully enclosed vehicle.

The Model T was easy to operate and built to handle rough roads, and with a top speed of 40 miles per hour, it made travel far more efficient. But it still had its share of problems. In the winter, radiators, which were filled with water, could easily freeze and crack. In the spring, muddy roads in unpaved regions meant cars could easily get stuck. And no matter the season, there was nothing to shield drivers from wind, rain, dust, or debris. Before windshields were the norm, they were an optional add-on for the Model T and other cars, meaning many early motorists often faced the open road — quite literally — without protection.

Windshields didn’t become standard on most vehicles until around 1915, and while they handily did their job shielding drivers from hazards, they became somewhat of a hazard themselves. Visibility through the simple, straight pane of glass was limited in inclement weather. When rain, snow, or mud obscured a driver’s view, there was no built-in solution to clear it away. The only option? Pull over, get out, and manually wipe the glass. It wasn’t exactly convenient, but there weren’t a lot of options; one other trick drivers used was to rub a carrot, sliced onion, or even a pinch of tobacco across the glass to create a thin film believed to help repel water. Ultimately, though, stopping the car and getting out to wipe the windshield was the most reliable, if cumbersome, way to see.

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Luckily, some enterprising minds were working on a better solution. In 1902, Alabama entrepreneur Mary Anderson was visiting New York City when she had an idea while riding the trolley. Trolley cars had windows and windshields long before autos, and on this particular ride she noticed her driver struggling to see through the sleet-slicked windshield. The driver tried a few things, including opening both windshield panes to peer between them, and getting out every few minutes to clear the windows. Inspired to solve this nuisance, Anderson sketched out an idea for a window-cleaning device: a hand-operated lever inside the vehicle that controlled a wiper on the outside.

Anderson received a patent for her invention in 1903, but cars weren’t yet very popular — there were just under 33,000 registered vehicles in the U.S. at the time — and they didn’t all have windshields, so interest was slim. The patent expired without success in 1920, right around the time the automobile started to become a fixture of American life: Between 1919 and 1929, the number of passenger cars on U.S. roads skyrocketed from 6.5 million to 23 million.

Other similar patents followed, and by about 1916, some of the cars that had adopted windshields also came equipped with wipers, but they were often optional, and were not yet widely used. That same year, however, Buffalo, New York, engineer John Jepson patented a simple windshield cleaner. It was similar in essence but more complex than Anderson's early designs. His consisted of spring-loaded arms that applied consistent pressure on both the top and bottom of the common horizontally split sections of windshields at the time.

The idea caught the attention of John Oishei, a local theater manager who vowed to improve driving visibility after hitting a bicyclist with his car while driving in the rain. He partnered with Jepson to market the device, branding it as the Rain-Rubber with the slogan, “Would YOU Drive Blindfolded?”

The Rain-Rubber quickly gained traction, and by the mid-1920s, windshield wipers had become standard on cars from several manufacturers, including Cadillac and Ford. While wiper-related patents have continued to flood in by the hundreds each decade ever since, at their core, windshield wipers remain true to the simple concept Anderson thought up on that New York City trolley back in 1902 — a blade wiping away the rain.

15 TV Shows History Buffs Will Love

Louisa Jacobson in “The Gilded Age” — Credit: Album/ Alamy Stock Photo

Author Kristina Wright

April 6, 2025

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There’s nothing like a great television series to sweep you into another time and place, bringing history to life with all the intrigue, romance, and drama of the past. And with today’s prestige TV and myriad streaming options, these shows are bigger, bolder, and more engaging than ever.

Whether they’re about royal power struggles, wartime heroics, or the social upheavals that shaped the modern world, historical dramas capture the moments where everything changes — and there’s no shortage of incredible stories to tell. Here are 15 historical TV shows that history buffs are sure to love.

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The Crown (2016-2023)

This lavish Netflix series chronicles the reign of Queen Elizabeth II, blending historical events with personal drama. Starring Claire Foy, Olivia Colman, and Imelda Staunton as the queen at different times in her life, The Crown earned multiple Emmys, including Outstanding Drama Series.

Inspired by real events and Peter Morgan’s 2013 play The Audience, the show portrays the political and personal struggles of Britain’s longest-reigning monarch. The meticulous attention to period detail, from costumes to set designs, makes The Crown one of Netflix’s most ambitious and expensive projects, reportedly costing $14.4 million per episode.

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Chernobyl (2019)

This gripping HBO miniseries reconstructs the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear power plant disaster, exploring the scientific, political, and human factors that led to one of the worst nuclear accidents in history. Featuring powerful performances by Jared Harris, Stellan Skarsgård, and Emily Watson, Chernobyl received multiple Emmy and Golden Globe awards for writing, directing, and acting. While dramatized for television, the production was praised for its hauntingly realistic portrayal, with much of it filmed in Lithuania to replicate the abandoned Soviet-era city of Pripyat.

Watch on Max

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Shōgun (2024-present)

Based on James Clavell’s 1975 bestselling novel, Shōgun immerses viewers in feudal Japan, following the journey of an English sailor who becomes involved in the court of a powerful daimyo (feudal lord). Starring Hiroyuki Sanada as Lord Yoshii Toranaga and Cosmo Jarvis as the stranded Englishman, John Blackthorne, this fresh adaptation revisits the classic story that first inspired the 1980 miniseries of the same name.

Originally intended as a single-season limited series, Shōgun became a runaway success, setting a record as the most-awarded single season in Emmy history with 18 wins. It also made history as the first Japanese-language series to win the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series. Thanks to its overwhelming popularity, the series has been renewed for two additional seasons, expanding its epic tale beyond its initial scope.

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John Adams (2008)

Starring Paul Giamatti and Laura Linney and based on David McCullough’s Pulitzer Prize-winning biography, this HBO miniseries provides an insightful look at the founding of the United States through the political career and personal life of John Adams. Filmed in colonial-era locations including Williamsburg, Virginia, John Adams explores the founding father’s role in drafting the Declaration of Independence, his presidency, and his complex alliance with Thomas Jefferson. The series won 13 Primetime Emmys, including Outstanding Miniseries, and earned critical acclaim for its performances, particularly Giamatti’s portrayal of Adams.

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Peaky Blinders (2013-2022)

Set in post-World War I Birmingham, England, Peaky Blinders is a stylish and gritty crime drama that follows the rise of the Shelby crime family. Led by the cunning and ambitious Tommy Shelby (Cillian Murphy), the gang expands its influence while navigating political intrigue, rival gangs, and personal betrayals. The series blends fiction with history, incorporating real-life figures including Winston Churchill and Oswald Mosley.

With an atmospheric soundtrack featuring modern artists such as Nick Cave and Queens of the Stone Age, Peaky Blinders became a cultural phenomenon. The show earned multiple BAFTAs, including Best Drama Series, and Murphy received critical acclaim for his portrayal of Tommy. With appearances by Tom Hardy and Anya Taylor-Joy, the series cemented itself as one of the most compelling crime dramas of the decade.

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Downton Abbey (2010-2015)

Downton Abbey is a British period drama that chronicles the lives of the aristocratic Crawley family and their servants in early-20th-century England. Created by Julian Fellowes, the series blends historical events with personal drama, capturing societal shifts with elegance and emotional depth. Starring Hugh Bonneville, Michelle Dockery, and Maggie Smith, it received widespread acclaim, winning multiple awards including a Golden Globe for Best Miniseries and a Primetime Emmy for Outstanding Miniseries. The show’s success led to two film sequels: Downton Abbey (2019) and Downton Abbey: A New Era (2022), with a third film forthcoming.

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The Gilded Age (2022-present)

With a third season currently in production, The Gilded Age is another period series created by Julian Fellowes of Downton Abbey fame. Set in 1880s New York City, the series depicts the era’s societal clash between established aristocracy and emerging industrial wealth. Christine Baranski portrays widow Agnes Van Rhijn, a staunch defender of “old money” traditions; Cynthia Nixon plays Agnes’ unmarried sister, Ada Brooke, who is reliant on her sister’s charity; and Carrie Coon plays Bertha Russell, a determined socialite from a "new money" family striving to break into elite society.

While the series centers on the lives of fictional characters, real historical figures such as Caroline Astor, Clara Barton, and T. Thomas Fortune also make appearances in the script, adding depth to the portrayal of the social and political dynamics of Gilded Age America.

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Band of Brothers (2001), The Pacific (2010), and Masters of the Air (2024)

Produced by Steven Spielberg and Tom Hanks, these companion World War II miniseries follow soldiers from different fronts of the war. The trilogy began with Band of Brothers, based on Stephen E. Ambrose’s book of the same name; it follows Easy Company, a unit of the 101st Airborne Division, from their training up through D-Day and the war’s end.

The Pacific, inspired by memoirs such as Helmet for My Pillow by Robert Leckie and With the Old Breed by Eugene Sledge, shifts the focus to the brutal island-hopping battles of the Pacific Theater and centers on three Marines. The latest installment, Masters of the Air, adapts Donald L. Miller’s book of the same name, exploring the experiences of the 100th Bomb Group, known as the "Bloody Hundredth," as they endure high-risk aerial missions over Nazi-occupied Europe.

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Rome (2005-2007)

Rome is a gripping historical drama that chronicles the turbulent fall of the Roman Republic. The story is seen through the eyes of two soldiers, Lucius Vorenus and Titus Pullo, portrayed by Kevin McKidd and Ray Stevenson, respectively, whose lives become entangled with key historical figures such as Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, and Cleopatra. Praised for its historical authenticity and rich storytelling, the series is also known for its lavish production, intricate political intrigue, and visceral battle sequences. Despite garnering critical acclaim, Rome lasted only two seasons due to its high production costs — the 10 episodes of the first season cost $100 million.

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Mad Men (2007-2015)

Mad Men isn’t a traditional historical drama, since its focus is on character-driven storytelling rather than major historical events, but its detailed re-creation of 1960s America captures the advertising world’s glamour and the decade’s shifting social norms. Created by Matthew Weiner, the series follows the enigmatic Don Draper, played by Jon Hamm, and rising copywriter Peggy Olson, played by Elisabeth Moss. The show won 16 Emmys, including four consecutive wins for Outstanding Drama Series, and earned widespread praise for its nuanced portrayal of gender, race, and class in a rapidly evolving society.

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Derry Girls (2018-2022)

Created by Lisa McGee, Derry Girls is an Irish coming-of-age comedy that blends sharp humor with the historical backdrop of the Troubles, the decades-long conflict between nationalists and unionists in Northern Ireland. The series follows Erin, her eccentric friends, and her English cousin as they navigate teenage life in the Northern Ireland town of Derry in the 1990s, balancing school, family, and mischief amid political unrest. While primarily a comedy, it offers a poignant perspective on a turbulent era, capturing both the absurdity and warmth of adolescence in extraordinary times.

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Call the Midwife (2012-present)

Call the Midwife is a long-running BBC drama that follows midwives in London’s East End from the 1950s onward, blending real medical and social history into its compelling storylines. Created by Heidi Thomas and based on the memoirs of Jennifer Worth, the series explores the challenges of childbirth, poverty, and evolving health care in postwar Britain while tackling issues such as immigration, women’s rights, and public health crises. The show has been praised for its compassionate storytelling and strong ensemble cast, including Jenny Agutter and Helen George.

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Victoria (2016-2019)

Novelist, screenwriter, and producer Daisy Goodwin is the visionary behind Victoria, a lush three-season period drama that brings to life the early reign of Queen Victoria, chronicling her personal and political struggles. Starring Jenna Coleman in a critically acclaimed performance, the series is based on historical events and the queen’s own diaries, offering an intimate look at the monarch’s rise to the throne, her marriage to Prince Albert, and the challenges of ruling a rapidly changing empire.

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What Did Mummies Smell Like?

Mummification in Egypt, 19th century — Credit: PRISMA ARCHIVO/ Alamy Stock Photo

Author Bess Lovejoy

April 5, 2025

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Although scent and memory are intimately intertwined, it’s not always easy to figure out what the past smelled like. But in the case of Egyptian mummies, historians may actually have an answer, and it’s “surprisingly pleasant.”

Recently, researchers from the University College London collaborated with the Egyptian Museum in Cairo to analyze the scents of nine mummies from a range of time periods in ancient Egyptian history. The resulting study, published in February 2025 in the Journal of the American Chemical Society, combined somewhat traditional sensory analysis — a panel of trained human “sniffers” who described their findings — with techniques to pinpoint the chemical compounds the mummies were emitting.

They looked at nine mummies, dating from Egypt’s New Kingdom (roughly 1539 to 1077 BCE) to its Roman period (30 BCE to 642 CE), and the most common olfactory descriptors people noted were “woody,” “spicy,” and “sweet.” Less commonly, the mummies were described as smelling “incense-like” or “stale, rancid.” The human sniffers were also asked to describe the pleasantness of mummy aromas, technically known as their “hedonic tone.” The average hedonic tone was rated as “slightly pleasant” — not bad, 5,000 or so years after death.

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Some of the most common odor compounds isolated by the more high-tech analysis were “nonanal” (described as smelling fresh and similar to wax, orange peel, and fat), “furfural” (described as being sweet and reminiscent of wood, almonds, and bread), and terpenoids such as α-pinene, d-limonene, l-verbenone, and borneol. Terpenoids usually suggest the use of plant products such as juniper oil, myrrh, and frankincense, which have all been well documented as part of the mummification process.

Indeed, the smells emitted by the mummies come in large part from the materials used to preserve the corpses. While techniques and materials varied over time, Egyptian mummies were often embalmed with resins from trees such as pine, cedar, juniper, and mastic, as well as gum resins (such as myrrh and frankincense), incense, animal fats, waxes, and various other woods, spices, herbs, and flowers. The preservation process also often involved natron salts — a mix of sodium carbonate, hydrogen carbonate, and small amounts of chloride and sulfate.

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