A Little Ice Age occurred between the 14th and 19th centuries.

Little Ice Age frost fair

Saber-toothed tigers and woolly mammoths weren’t roaming the Earth during the last ice age — Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo were. A period of global cooling, known as the “Little Ice Age,” spanned the late Middle Ages through the Renaissance era, ending around the dawn of the Industrial Revolution in the mid-1800s. Some locations cooled down more than others, including northern Europe and western North America, which experienced temperature fluctuations between 1.8 and 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit cooler than the thousand-year averages for those regions.

This drastic change in climate had several possible causes. One leading theory points to a decrease in sunspot activity, which caused less solar radiation to reach Earth’s surface. Significant changes in atmospheric patterns also might have contributed to cooler temperatures in some regions. Or an increase in volcanic eruptions could have been the culprit, causing gas and ash to spew into the atmosphere, cooling the Earth. Some experts suggest it was a combination of all these things. Researchers at University College London believe the temperature drop was exacerbated by an entirely different issue: the depopulation of the Americas following the arrival of European colonists. Mass warfare and disease caused the deaths of 56 million Indigenous people by 1600. Large areas of once-cultivated land turned into forests, absorbing massive amounts of carbon dioxide and preventing it from reaching the atmosphere to warm the planet.

The impacts of the Little Ice Age were global, causing food shortages in parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. China’s long-standing Ming dynasty fell in 1644, partially due to agricultural woes. Widespread famine uprooted the regular order of society, and Europe’s medieval feudal system (which relied on peasants growing crops for their lords) collapsed (partly due to climate change, though many other factors contributed), giving way to markets and trade systems. This new way of life led into the 17th-century Age of Enlightenment, when exploration, religion, art, and philosophy transformed European society.

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Londoners once held “frost fairs” on the frozen River Thames.

During the latter part of the Little Ice Age, from around 1600 to 1800, the River Thames often froze over, sometimes for up to two months. During this time, thousands of eager attendees assembled on the Thames for festivals called “frost fairs,” where they participated in winter activities such as ice skating, sledding, and bowling. Nearby pop-up tents housed pubs, barbers, shoemakers, and shops selling tea, gifts, and other goods. Food stands served hearty dishes such as roasted mutton and ox, with gingerbread for dessert. The most famous frost fair occurred during the winter of 1683 to 1684 — dubbed the “Blanket Fair” — during one of the coldest winters London had seen. King Charles II was reportedly in attendance and enjoyed festivities including bull-baiting, coach races, and puppet plays. As the end of the Little Ice Age drew near, the Thames froze less often, and the final frost fair was held in January 1814.