Crane Treadwheel Operator

Regularly used by the Romans before fading from the public record, the treadwheel crane enjoyed a revival during the Middle Ages as a means for constructing the magnificent cathedrals and palaces that still mark the European landscape today. This device was operated by one or two people walking in what was essentially a giant hamster wheel, with a rope that wound around the wheel axle used to lift stone blocks weighing thousands of pounds. 

Contrary to what may seem intuitive, the job of the treadwheel worker was not as physically taxing as, say, that of the hod carrier who bore heavy loads as they scaled the scaffolding of a developing structure. Furthermore, this particular task provided a source of employment for blind people, who wouldn't be spooked by working at the great heights these cranes sometimes reached. Nevertheless, the heavy wheel could be difficult to control, and serious injury could result if it malfunctioned or the operator had the misfortune of losing their balance.

Pardoner

Leveraging the concept of indulgences, in which a practitioner of Catholicism receives a lesser punishment for sins by demonstrating acts of atonement or providing a monetary donation, the medieval Catholic Church began assigning pardoners to essentially serve as door-to-door salesmen of these spiritual boosters. While this arrangement suited the needs of both parish and parishioners, it also enabled a system in which corrupt officials and frauds padded their pockets by doling out as many indulgences as possible. 

The infamy of this profession prompted Geoffrey Chaucer to write about its contradictions in a chapter in The Canterbury Tales, and reformist Martin Luther later decried the system as a basis of his Ninety-five Theses. It would be a half-century, however, before Pope Pius V eliminated the job market for pardoners by abolishing the sale of indulgences for good in 1567.

Barber-Surgeon

While the medieval period didn't offer its inhabitants anything close to the one-stop shopping options of the internet age, it at least provided a convenient solution for those in dire need of simultaneously dealing with a toothache and getting a haircut. The emergence of the barber-surgeon came about after clerics, who handled an array of surgical and medical procedures by the early Middle Ages, were forbidden from drawing blood by the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215. Barbers were trained to pick up the slack due to their experiences with razors, and many became adept at bloodletting, pulling teeth, and even amputation. The proliferation of these practitioners led to the formation of England's barber-surgeon trade guild in 1540, although the special skills required by the medical side of the profession resulted in the separation of these titles by the early 1800s.

Fuller

“Fulling” is the process by which cloth fibers are condensed and strengthened for transformation into wearable garments, a practice that dates back to at least ancient Egypt and remains in use today. Although it generally involves the folding and mashing of cloth in a soapy liquid, the medieval means for undertaking this activity were somewhat less benign. A medieval fuller was required to stomp around on a cloth pile submerged in a vat of stale urine, which was deemed the rinsing liquid of choice due to its high levels of ammonium salts being ideal for removing grease and softening the fabric. Since the process could take several hours, that meant an extended period of time huffing and puffing and breathing in the fumes from the bodily waste splashing about below.

Flatulist

A medieval court could be entertained by an array of jesters, jugglers, and acrobats, but nestled under that general umbrella of entertainers was a subset of performers who earned a living by breaking wind. Such was the case with an English gentleman known as Roland the Farter, who, according to the 13th-century Liber Feodorum (Book of Fees), regularly performed a dance at King Henry II's annual Christmas pageant that ended with the delivery of “one jump, one whistle, and one fart.” 

Roland was rewarded handsomely for his proclivities, receiving a manor in Suffolk and up to 100 acres of land. But lest you think this was just one individual with a distinctly unique skill set, there are also records of a contemporary collection of flatulists, known as braigetori, who were enjoying similar acclaim in Ireland. Indeed, this was a profession that endured even as the Middle Ages gave way to the high-minded civilizations that followed. Joseph Pujol became a celebrity in France in the late 19th and early 20th centuries for his riotous rear-end performances under the moniker of Le Pétomane, while Paul Oldfield, aka Mr. Methane, recently farted his way into Guinness World Records for his lengthy career in the field.

Pointy Shoes Were Phallic Symbols, Too

Pointed shoes weren’t only an ostentatious display of wealth; they were also seen as phallic. According to the London Museum, extravagantly long shoes were favored by young men, some of whom would stand on street corners wiggling their shoes suggestively at people walking by. And if the shoes had bells sewn to the ends of them, it indicated that the wearer was available for intimate acts.

This didn’t please the Catholic Church, which saw the pointy shoes not only as symbols of vanity and excessive pride, but also as a corrupting force that could only lead to deviance and sin. Eventually, there was a crackdown on cracows. As early as 1362 — before Anne of Bohemia had even popularized the shoes in England — Pope Urban V tried to ban them completely. Later, in 1463, the English Parliament under Edward IV passed a law banning anyone lower in rank than lord from wearing shoes with points longer than 2 inches. Anyone found breaking the law could be fined, and cobblers were strictly prohibited from selling overly pointed shoes to people of insufficient status. 

All of the controversy made wearing pointy shoes far less fun than it used to be, and by 1475, the poulaines trend was largely at an end. Yet for one spectacular moment in history, people did indeed wear incredibly silly pointy shoes in what was a complex display of status, wealth, misplaced manliness, and the occasional ringing of foot-based bells on street corners. 

Why Is It Called “Feudalism”?

Despite its association with the Middle Ages, “feudalism” is not a medieval term. The word derives from the Latin feudum, meaning land granted in exchange for service, which was a term used in the Middle Ages to describe a type of property arrangement. But medieval people did not describe their society as “feudal.” It wasn’t until the 16th and 17th centuries that scholars studying medieval legal documents began using the term to explain how land, power, and obligation had seemingly functioned during this period. 

By the 18th and 19th centuries, historians and philosophers had expanded the term “feudalism” into a broad model for medieval society (with some differences in interpretation), often depicting it as a rigid hierarchy stretching from monarch to peasant. 

Why Historians Debate the Term Today

Many historians now argue that the notion of feudalism oversimplifies medieval reality. Laws, customs, and power structures varied widely from region to region, and medieval society did not operate under a single, uniform system. For example, in some areas monasteries controlled land, collected rents, and ran courts; in others, particularly urban centers, merchant guilds often held real political influence. Some later scholars also tended to emphasize the importance of landholding arrangements at the expense of other forces that shaped society and daily life, such as trade, the church, and political institutions.

As a result, feudalism is often described as a historiographic construct — a framework created by modern thinkers to impose order on a complex past. Still, the term remains useful as shorthand for a world in which land, loyalty, and power were tightly linked, and political authority was fragmented rather than centralized. In other words, feudalism may not describe a single medieval system so much as a later attempt to explain how society held together, insofar as it did at all during this turbulent period in history.

Battle

Like modern professional athletes, knights had to keep in fighting shape to prepare for the call to battle. As such, they regularly partook in drills to sharpen skills involving weaponry and horsemanship. Training equipment included the pell, a sturdy wooden post that withstood sword strikes, and the quintain, a rotating horizontal arm that served as a target for a thrusted lance. Additionally, activities such as wrestling and grappling helped knights keep their muscles strong and prepare for up-close personal combat.

Tournaments

Another means for demonstrating battle-ready skills came via participation in a tournament. These popular exhibitions typically featured knights competing in two main events. In the joust, two knights rode toward each other on horseback, each seeking to knock their opponent to the ground with a lance. In the melee, participants split into two teams and attacked each other in a massive brawl, with blunted weapons and designated neutral zones being the only real differences between these mock skirmishes and the real ones.

A strong performance could result in a financial windfall for a knight, in the form of the armor, horse, and a ransom from the opponent "captured" in a melee. A low-ranking knight could also impress one of the powerful nobles in attendance and wind up with a more prominent station in life. Conversely, an unsuccessful knight could lose a lot of money or sustain a serious injury in these exhibitions.

Land Management

According to Life of a Medieval Knight, a large chunk of the fief-holding knight's time was devoted to land management. While actual field work was the jurisdiction of the peasant laborers, the knight ensured that crops were planted and harvested on time, that livestock were properly attended to before slaughter, and that income-generating facilities such as mills and bakeries were operating smoothly. 

Such oversight was crucial, as a knight depended on a high level of production from their holdings to meet the expenses of their position. By the 15th century, a set of armor cost a quarter of a knight's annual income, while a reliable warhorse could eat up an entire year's worth.

Church

Religion played a prominent role in the life of the knight. Many of these warrior members of the nobility had younger siblings who pursued careers as men and women of faith, and Christianity took an increasingly prominent role in official knight dubbing ceremonies in Europe as the Middle Ages progressed.

In turn, a respectable knight displayed their piety by regularly attending church. Many supported the church by sponsoring feasts and celebrations to mark important Christian holidays such as Christmas or Easter, or by supplying land and funds for infrastructure improvements.

Some knights joined one of the religious military orders, which required followers to adhere to monastic vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Among the better-known orders were the Knights Templar, which formed in the 12th century with the mission of protecting Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem, and the Knights Hospitallers, which surfaced around the same time and was devoted to providing shelter and medical care for travelers.

Recreation

Of course, all work and no play makes a knight a dull boy, and many enjoyed the chance to have some fun when opportunity allowed. One popular form of recreation was hunting, which doubled as a social event with family members, other nobles, and servants joining the efforts to track down wild boar and deer. The hunt also enabled the knight to demonstrate lessons learned in falconry, a favorite pastime of medieval nobility. Carrying a falcon or hawk on a gloved wrist, the owner would send their prized bird in pursuit of smaller prey with the flick of their arm.

Even with the onset of darkness or cold weather, the knight had options. Those seeking to scratch a competitive itch could focus on games of chess or backgammon. Others could enjoy the pleasures of reading, perhaps a tale about a gallant knight of yore such as Lancelot or Gawain, or take in the music and poetry provided by a traveling minstrel.

Male Names Were Inspired by Warriors and Kings

Throughout the Middle Ages, warriors and kings provided naming inspiration, reflecting ideals of power, bravery, and nobility. These names were chosen not just for their meanings, but also to honor heroic figures and royal lineage, shaping the way individuals were perceived in society.

William
William rose to prominence after the Norman Conquest of 1066, thanks to William the Conqueror. It derives from the Germanic name Willahelm, meaning “resolute protector.” The name became a symbol of power and legitimacy throughout Norman-ruled lands. There were many medieval variations, including Guillaume (French), Wilhelm (German), Guilherme (Portuguese), and Guglielmo (Italian).

Richard
Richard, from the Latin Ricardus, was a strong and noble name meaning “brave ruler.” It originates from the Old High German Ricohard, combining ric (meaning “power, ruler”) and hard (“brave, hardy”). Its popularity soared due to figures such as Richard the Lionheart, whose legacy of leadership and valor made the name especially popular. Medieval variations included Richart and Rikard in the French and Germanic regions.

Henry
Henry, from the Latin Henricus, was a royal favorite throughout medieval Europe. It comes from the Old High German name Heimirich, meaning “home ruler.” A name popular among future kings and high-ranking nobles, it conveyed authority and stability. Some medieval variations included Heinrich (German), Henri (French), Enrique (Spanish), and Enrico (Italian).

Geoffrey
Geoffrey, from the Latin Galfridus, was a distinguished name of Norman origin. Its roots lie in the Germanic Gaufrid or Walfrid, meaning “God’s peace.” Though less common today, the name Geoffrey (and its variations) was widely used in medieval records and literary circles, largely due to the influence of the Welsh cleric Geoffrey of Monmouth, whose writings helped popularize the name and its legendary associations, particularly with the Arthurian tales. Medieval variations included Geoffroi (French), Goffredo (Italian), Gofraid (Old Irish/Scottish), and Jofré (Catalan).

Female Names Were Strong and Feminine 

Though women were often excluded from political power, many female names during the Middle Ages reflected strength and elegance. Several prominent women of the era, whose names were closely tied to royal courts and political influence, helped shape naming trends that persist to this day.

Mathilda
Mathilda (or Matilda) comes from the Latin Matildis, which traces back to the Germanic elements maht (“might”) and hild (“battle”), meaning “mighty in battle.” The name was widely used among medieval royalty and nobility, notably by Empress Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England and a central figure in the 12th century. It conveyed strength and high status, making it a favorite in aristocratic circles. Medieval variations included Matildis (Latin), Mahaut (Old French), and Mechthild (German).

Eleanor
Eleanor, derived from the earlier Alienor, rose to prominence in medieval Europe following the fame of Eleanor of Aquitaine, queen of both France and England in the 12th century. The name came to symbolize noble grace and royal authority. Its origin is likely linked to the Provençal name Aliénor, possibly a form of Helen, though its exact roots remain uncertain. Eleanor became widely used across France, England, and parts of the Iberian Peninsula. Medieval variations included Aliénor (French), Alianor (Old French), and Ellinor (Middle English).

Alice
Alice, from the Old French Aalis, traces its roots to the Old High German name Adalheidis, meaning “noble kind.” Brought to England by the Normans, Aelis was favored among the aristocracy and frequently appeared in courtly literature and historical records. Over time, it evolved into the Middle English name Alice, which became common in both noble and common households. Medieval variations included Aelis (Old French) and Alis (Middle English).

Beatrice
Beatrice, from the Latin Beatrix, meaning “she who blesses,” rose to prominence in medieval Italy. The name was popular among noble families and gained lasting literary significance through Beatrice Portinari, the muse of Dante Alighieri. Immortalized in La Vita Nuova and The Divine Comedy, she cemented the name’s association with virtue and idealized femininity. Medieval variations included Beatriz (Spanish and Portuguese) and Béatrice (French).

The Not-So-Dark Ages

Contrary to popular belief, the so-called “Dark Ages” were not a time of complete intellectual stagnation. In Rome’s absence, and with Europe lacking a large kingdom or other political structure as a centralizing force, the Christian church grew to fill the void. Monasteries became crucial centers of learning and literacy, and monks became patrons of the arts. Universities developed, and learning continued apace. In the Arab world, meanwhile, this period coincided with the Golden Age of Islam — around the eighth to 13th centuries — a time of significant scientific, economic, and cultural progress. 

While later historians wrote of the “Dark Ages” as a time of intellectual and social decline in Europe, in reality the period saw many advancements. Innovations such as crop-rotation, the heavy plough, and the horse-collar changed agriculture forever, while power generation was revolutionized with the implementation of water and windmills. Gothic architecture emerged, musical notation was refined, and European battlefields saw the first use of cannons and heavily armored cavalry. Groundbreaking advances in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine were also made during these centuries.

New Terms for This Era

Most modern historians now reject the pejorative “Dark Ages” label, although it continues to be used in popular culture. Typically, the term “Early Middle Ages” is now used to describe the era, or, in a wider sense, the “medieval era.” Another term, “Migration Period,” is sometimes used to refer to the early medieval period of Western European history, when so-called “barbarian” peoples — including the Huns, Goths, Vandals, Bulgars, Alani, Suebi, and Franks — moved into the former Western Roman Empire.

Archaeological evidence continues to reveal a much more complex picture of early medieval life — one of innovation, cultural richness, and significant social development — further consigning the term “Dark Ages” to the pages of academic history. While the period certainly had its challenges, it was far from the uniformly bleak and intellectually barren time that historians once portrayed. It was, in fact, a crucial transitional era that bridged classical antiquity and the Renaissance, laying the groundwork for developments that shaped the future.

Earls Served as Advisers to the King

The United Kingdom’s upper house of Parliament, known as the House of Lords, has its roots in a body of government from Anglo-Saxon England (the period of English history before the Norman Conquest) called the witan. Named for the Anglo-Saxon phrase “witenagemot,” or “meeting of the wise men,” the witan was made up of noble lords, including earls and barons, as well as religious officials such as abbots and bishops. This group served as a council of advisers to the king (England did not have a ruling queen until Mary I was crowned in 1553). The king would call on the witan to get support for decisions such as granting land, making new laws, or levying taxes. 

In the 14th century, two distinct houses of Parliament were established. The House of Commons was made up of representatives from the towns and counties, while the House of Lords was composed of religious leaders, known as lords spiritual, and nobles, including earls and other members of the peerage, known as lords temporal. Before the Norman Conquest, the title of earl was not automatically hereditary, and the territory that defined an earldom was not permanent. By the reign of King Richard II in the 14th century, earldoms were either hereditary or life appointments, and by the 15th century, the vast majority of lords temporal in the House of Lords had inherited their titles. This tradition continued for centuries, and it wasn’t until 1999 that nobles’ automatic right to inherit a seat in Parliament was abolished.

Medieval Earls Were Also Military Leaders

In Anglo-Saxon England, a role known as ealdorman served as a high-ranking court official responsible for enforcing the king’s laws within a local shire. The office of ealdorman evolved into the title of earl, a word of Scandinavian origin that was introduced during the reign of the Danish King Canute (Cnut) in the 11th century. Earls assumed many of the leadership duties of the role: They were tasked with keeping the peace, exercising justice, and raising armies in the king’s name. Under the feudal system, earls granted small parcels of land to knights and vassals in exchange for military services. Knights helped enforce the laws, defending landholdings and seizing other nearby lands, and could become lords themselves.

After William the Conqueror reduced the size of earldoms, earls took on the role of military governors over smaller, more strategic areas of land. They were responsible for overseeing coastal areas and vulnerable borders, and had the authority to imprison lawbreakers. In later centuries, the number of earls and earldoms were reduced through extinction of titles and sale of land. By the 1800s, the role of earl was increasingly focused on social obligations, helping to facilitate important alliances for the crown and strategic marriages between nobles. Despite the reduction in formal responsibilities and landholdings, earls and other members of the British peerage continued to hold a substantial amount of power through personal wealth and political influence as members of Parliament.

Bathing at Home and in Public

Wooden bathtubs were typically found in the houses of wealthier members of society, who would bathe fairly regularly. Commoners in rural areas didn’t always have bathtubs, but would take dips in the river, or — when nothing else was available — a handy horse trough. Since many citizens worked in sweaty manual labor, they bathed quite frequently, often every day. In the towns, bathing was done at public baths, which were especially common during the late Middle Ages. These bathhouses were often connected to bakeries, using excess heat from the ovens to warm the water. Medieval public baths weren’t for the shy, as men and women bathed naked together. Perhaps unsurprisingly, considering the amount of nude flesh on display, bathhouses often had an illicit side to them, doubling as brothels. 

Don’t Forget the Soap

Yes, people used soap back in the medieval period. Soap was available as a trade good in Europe as early as the ninth century CE, and could also be made at home. Numerous soap-making recipes exist from the Middle Ages, often including ingredients such as ashes from an oak tree, tallow (animal fat), lime (heated to become quicklime), salt, and flour. The soap was scented using fresh herbs such as sage and thyme. Shampoo didn’t exist, so most people simply washed their hair with water. The more well-off citizens, however, washed their hair with a mixture similar to soap, made from ashes and egg whites and scented with herbs and flowers. People also brushed their hair with combs, but not only for cosmetic reasons. Fine-toothed combs were used as delousing implements, specifically designed to remove lice from the hair.  

Doing the Laundry

Of course, taking a nice bath is fairly pointless if all your clothes stink. Medieval people were well aware of this and tried to keep their clothing clean. While heavier outer garments might have received only an occasional brushing, undergarments and household linens were frequently laundered. Advice books from the Middle Ages recommended that underwear should be changed every day. Those who could afford it sent their laundry to a washer, who scrubbed and beat the dirt out of linens in a large wooden tub or in the river. To help clean and deodorize fabrics, a plant called soapwort, or herbs such as marjoram, could be added to the water. And to keep those whites nice and bright, people washed their linens in chamber lye — a mixture that included wood ash and urine, the latter carefully gathered from chamber pots.