Early Grocery Stores 

Although the term "grocery" referred to a tavern or a saloon through much of America's early history, it came to signify the emporiums that were appearing in more densely populated urban centers by the late 19th century.

These grocery stores typically carried around 200 products, and occupied 500 to 600 square feet of floor space. As with general stores, these shops featured items piled high on shelves, with clerks reaching for everything presented to them on a list and continuing to measure out both liquid and solid goods from barrels. 

Although most proprietors were willing to offer a line of credit, a precursor to today’s credit cards, unlike today they provided limited choices by stocking only one type of each product. Also unlike most modern grocery stores, these early shops largely sold dry goods, meaning customers typically needed to make separate trips to a butcher, bakery, and produce peddler to round out the full array of dining needs. 

A&P, Piggly Wiggly, and the Rise of Chain Stores

The grocery model began to change when the Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company, owners of the A&P grocery chain, opened the first of its "economy stores" in 1912. Along with eliminating the credit lines and free delivery offered by independent retailers, A&P stores became known for offering popular brands such as Eight O'Clock Coffee. 

The Tennessee-based Piggly Wiggly chain introduced additional innovations to the model with the opening of its first store in 1916. Most groundbreaking was its procedure of "self service." While goods still lined the lone aisle that snaked through the store, they were now within reach of customers who picked out the price-marked items themselves instead of delegating the responsibility to a clerk. The customers then placed the item in a wood basket — also a novel feature — before bringing everything to a checkout counter.

The streamlined processes resulted in lower costs for customers, and in turn produced an explosion in sales for retailers. The number of grocery chain stores increased from 24,000 to around 200,000 between 1914 and 1930, with the biggest, A&P, accounting for 16,000 of those outlets.

The First Supermarkets Appeared in the 1930s

Although the 1920s saw the rise of "combination stores" that provided a wider range of meats, produce, and dairy products under one roof, the first true supermarket arrived with the opening of New York City's King Kullen in 1930.

A former employee of the Kroger chain stores, Matt Cullen decided to launch his new enterprise in a slightly more remote section of Jamaica, Queens. The location allowed for cheaper real estate, which meant that Cullen could open a larger store and provide space for the machines that were transforming American lives: automobiles.

The first King Kullen covered 6,000 square feet and offered 10 times the amount of food products as most existing markets, much of which was sold out of packing crates. It was soon surpassed by New Jersey's Big Bear, which featured a 15,000-square-foot grocery surrounded by areas leased to vendors selling tobacco, cosmetics, and auto parts. 

Although other features of the contemporary shopping experience had yet to be invented — shopping carts arrived in the late 1930s, the barcode system in the 1970s — the blueprint for the modern grocery store was in place, with supermarkets eventually expanding to stock 50,000 items, and colossal chains swelling to a footprint of more than 200,000 square feet.

Nowadays, as we casually stroll down the block-length aisles of superstores beneath towering shelves of colorful boxes, examine the fine print on packages in the organic section, or nibble on the free samples of cheese and dumplings, we can spare a thought for the evolution of this essential part of everyday life.

Protein, Colonial Style

Most Americans in 1776 ate far less fresh meat than modern Americans do. Instead, preservation was essential. Salted pork, salted beef, and dried or salted fish provided reliable sources of protein throughout the year.

For many households, one of the most important dishes was pottage — a hearty stew that simmered for hours over the hearth. A pot might contain whatever ingredients were available: vegetables, grains, beans, and bits of meat or fish. Because ingredients could be added as supplies allowed, pottage was economical, filling, and adaptable.

Regional differences were significant. In New England, fish played a major role thanks to the region’s abundant coastline and thriving fisheries. Salt cod was both a staple food and an important export. Coastal residents also ate shellfish, including oysters and lobsters. Lobster was so plentiful that it was often considered food for poorer households rather than the luxury it is today.

Elsewhere, wild game frequently appeared on the table. Deer, rabbits, squirrels, waterfowl, and even passenger pigeons — once among the most abundant birds in North America — could be hunted for food. Wealthier Americans sometimes enjoyed more elaborate dishes, including turtle soup, which became fashionable in some cities and taverns.

Daily Bread 

If there was one food that connected nearly every table in 1776, it was bread. In wheat-growing regions of the mid-Atlantic and South, families baked loaves similar to those eaten in Europe. In New England, however, wheat was harder to grow, so many households relied on “rye-and-Indian” bread, a dense loaf made from rye flour and cornmeal. Some loaves weighed several pounds and were intended to last for days.

Many meals were accompanied by beans, which stored well through the winter. In some regions, slow-cooked bean dishes became household staples, providing an inexpensive source of calories and protein.

Spice Was Nice

Modern diners often imagine colonial food as bland, but cooks in 1776 had access to a surprisingly broad range of seasonings. Black pepper was widely used, along with herbs such as marjoram and savory. Nutmeg and mace appeared in both savory and sweet dishes. Imported spices were expensive, but they were common enough to find their way into many cookbooks and household recipes.

Some seasonings that seem unusual today were entirely ordinary at the time. Rosewater, introduced to Europe centuries earlier through cultural exchanges with the Middle East, was a popular baking ingredient. Colonial cooks used it much the way modern bakers use vanilla extract, adding it to cakes, pies, and stewed fruit.

Lemon juice and lemon peel also appeared frequently in recipes, such as one heavily seasoned preparation for venison favored by Martha Washington. And nearly every dish carried a flavor that modern kitchens rarely produce: wood smoke. Since most cooking took place over open hearths, smoke subtly flavored everything from breads to stews.

What’s for Dessert?

Dessert in 1776 was often less sugary than modern Americans might expect, but it could still be elaborate. Pies were common, especially when seasonal fruits such as apples were available. Puddings — a broad category that included everything from boiled grain dishes to rich desserts — appeared regularly on colonial tables. One favorite was syllabub, a frothy mixture of cream and alcohol that was often served at celebrations in special glasses.

Wealthier households sometimes prepared what was known as great cake, a predecessor to modern fruitcake. These dense cakes were packed with dried fruit, sugar, spices, and alcohol, which helped preserve them for long periods. Special occasions called for particularly extravagant versions that used dozens of eggs and pounds of butter.

Even as Americans fought for independence, they maintained a fondness for sweets whenever ingredients were available. Sugar, molasses, dried fruit, and imported spices transformed simple ingredients into festive treats for holidays, elections, weddings, and other celebrations.

Saving Scraps and Reusing Food

Wasting food wasn’t even a consideration during the Depression because every scrap had potential. Bones from roasts or poultry were saved and boiled for broth, sometimes more than once, extracting every bit of flavor before being discarded. Vegetable scraps such as onion skins, celery ends, and carrot peels were saved and added to stockpots, creating a rich base for soups and stews.

Stale bread became French toast or bread pudding, or was dried and crushed into breadcrumbs for future use. Vegetables that were wilted or soft were added to soups, and overripe fruit could be cooked down into sauces or preserves. What couldn’t be used immediately was often repurposed in another form.

Fat, in particular, was treated as a valuable resource. Bacon grease, chicken fat, and drippings from cooked meat were saved in tins and jars and reused for frying, baking, or flavoring vegetables. Coffee grounds were often brewed a second time for a weaker pot, then dried and used as a mild abrasive for scrubbing. This kind of frugality helped get the most out of everything that came into the kitchen.

One-Pot Cooking for Efficiency

For Depression-era homemakers, efficiency was as important as thrift. One-pot meals were the go-to because they minimized fuel use, reduced cleanup, and made it easier to stretch ingredients into something substantial and filling that could last all week.

Soups, stews, and skillet meals allowed homemakers to build layers of flavor over time. Tough, inexpensive cuts of meat could simmer for hours until tender, while potatoes, beans, or dumplings helped bulk up the dish. Ingredients were often added in stages, depending on what needed to cook longer and what could be stirred in at the end.

These meals were also highly adaptable. Leftovers from previous days were frequently added to the pot, changing yesterday’s roast or vegetables into something entirely new. A stew might evolve over several days, with each reheating thickening the broth and deepening the flavor. It was a flexible, forgiving way of cooking that ensured that nothing went to waste.

Relying on Pantry Staples

With fresh ingredients sometimes hard to come by, pantry staples became the foundation of daily cooking. Beans, lentils, and grains such as barley or cornmeal were affordable, filling, and had a long shelf life.

Dried beans were often soaked overnight to reduce cooking time and conserve fuel, then simmered into soups or served as a main dish. Cornmeal could be transformed into everything from soft mush to crisp fried cakes or cornbread. Barley added heartiness to soups, while rice stretched meals and absorbed flavors from whatever it was cooked with. Leftovers were transformed into endless options. Cooked grains might be reheated, fried, or mixed with other ingredients to create a completely different dish the next day.

Growing, Foraging, and Preserving

Whenever possible, families supplemented their kitchens by growing their own food, a tradition that continued after the Depression as World War II “victory gardens” gained popularity. Backyard gardens provided vegetables such as beans, potatoes, cabbage, and tomatoes, while herbs added flavor without added cost. Neighbors could trade seeds, plants, and harvested vegetables, and even a small plot could make a difference to a household’s food budget.

Foraging also played a role, especially in rural areas. Wild berries, greens, and nuts were gathered when available, adding variety to otherwise simple meals. What couldn’t be used right away was preserved for later.

Canning, pickling, and drying were essential skills. Fruits and vegetables were stored in jars to last through the winter, while surplus harvests were turned into jams, relishes, or shelf-stable staples. These methods allowed families to make the most of what they had when it was available and ensured they would have something later, when it wasn’t.

Making Do With Substitutions

When key ingredients weren’t available, homemakers adapted. Creative substitutions became a defining feature of Depression-era cooking, particularly in baking. Cakes were made without eggs, milk, or butter, using pantry staples such as flour, sugar, cocoa, oil, vinegar, and baking soda. These “wacky cakes” were often mixed directly in the pan, cutting down on both ingredients and cleanup, and still produced moist, flavorful results.

There were also “mock” recipes designed to mimic the taste and texture of more expensive dishes. Mock apple pie was made from crackers, sugar, cinnamon, and lemon, while mock cherry pie substituted cranberries or raisins for cherries. Other recipe variations included mock cream, a whipped cream substitute that used egg whites and gelatin; baked fake steak made from ground beef; and even mock chicken made from a tomato and egg, because it was more practical to keep chickens for eggs than to use them for meat. 

These recipes are still shared today for their novelty, but they highlight the culinary problem-solving of homemakers who wanted to feed their families well but didn’t necessarily have the resources to do it.

Beef Jerky

Despite being surrounded by hundreds of cattle, cowboys rarely ate fresh beef from the herd (unless an animal was sick or injured and could no longer be driven). Instead, smoked jerky was the most common way to consume beef, because it was easy to carry, lasted much longer than fresh meat, and could easily be added to stews. Cowboys preserved their beef by turning it into jerky using a variety of methods, including sun drying, smoking, and salting. Cowboys did hunt fresh game along the trail, but beef jerky ensured that meat was always on hand. 

Salt Pork and Bacon

Salt pork — pork that is heavily salted to preserve the meat — was prized for its very long shelf life. Unlike jerky, salt pork couldn’t be consumed directly and had to be soaked in water to reduce the salt content before cooking. Cowboys also ate a lot of bacon, especially for breakfast, but it was nothing like the thin-sliced variety found today. It was typically “sowbelly” — pork fat from the belly (and sometimes the back and sides) of the pig, heavily cured with salt. 

Dried Fruit

Dried fruits offered much-needed sweetness on the trail, and most chuckwagons had some in supply. Apples were the most common dried fruit, but apricots, cherries, peaches, raisins, and prunes also made an appearance, largely depending on what fresh fruit was available in the region. 

As well as breaking up the monotony of all the savory staples, preserved fruits contained essential vitamins that helped keep cowboys relatively healthy on the trail. Fresh fruits, such as berries encountered along the route, were always a welcome discovery, but dried fruits offered a more dependable and long-lasting supply. 

Hardtack

Hardtack has been a survival staple for centuries, feeding soldiers, sailors, explorers, and adventurers in many extreme situations. It’s basically a dense, dry cracker, made from flour and small amounts of water, that can last for months (or even years) without spoiling. Hardtack was a common ration for soldiers during the Civil War and was then adopted by cowboys on the trail. While almost inedible on its own, it provided a quick and easy snack when dunked in coffee, crumbled into stew, or soaked in water and fried in bacon fat. 

Potatoes and Onions

Along with beans, potatoes and onions were among the most common vegetables in a cowboy’s diet. Durable, filling, and easy to store, they added texture and flavor to what could otherwise be very bland cooking. Both were added to stews and mixed in with beans, and potatoes were often fried in bacon grease. 

Canned Goods

Canned goods were considered a genuine luxury on the trail, being both heavy and expensive. But a well-prepared chuckwagon might have some canned items — known as “air tights” — in stock, such as canned peaches or tomatoes, which would have been highly prized by any cowboy. 
Canned tomatoes were a thirst-quencher and contained some much-needed sugar, and the acidity helped to counter the gypsum found in most river water (which cowboys would often drink untreated). Opening a can of peaches, meanwhile, was the ultimate morale booster — and about as close to luxury as a cowboy could get while making their way across the frontier.