5 Retro Photos From the Swinging ’60s

Dancers at Cromwellian Club, 1966

Author Nicole Villeneuve

January 16, 2025

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The Swinging ’60s were a period of whirlwind of change in the United Kingdom — bold, colorful, and bursting with possibility. At the dawn of the decade, Britain was still shaking off the postwar doldrums, with austerity lingering and life defined by staid convention and cautious optimism. But as the country entered an era of economic growth and prosperity, a sense of freedom and opportunity also emerged. By the end of the 1960s, London had transformed into a global hot spot of youth, freedom, and creativity, where music, fashion, and art collided in a cultural revolution that reverberated around the world.

As a generation of young people — resulting from the postwar baby boom — emerged free from war and its looming shadow, they embraced individuality. Not content to follow the old rules, they set out to rewrite them entirely: Music became their driving force, with bands such as the Beatles leading the charge. Fashion transformed too, with Mary Quant’s daring designs embodying the era’s exuberance. London was alive with energy, and the city spent the better part of the decade reinventing itself. Here are five photos from the era that illustrate what it was like to live through the Swinging ’60s.

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George Harrison’s Sitar (1968)

Few things capture the cultural imprint of 1960s London quite like the Beatles. Their meteoric rise to fame coincided with the youth-driven revolution that defined the era. The Fab Four were more than just a band; they were an unstoppable force that touched everything from fashion to philosophy. The Beatles were known to experiment with new sounds, particularly Eastern influences, and guitarist George Harrison’s introduction of the sitar into their music marked a pivotal moment.

This photo, taken in June 1968 at Heathrow Airport, shows George and Pattie Harrison, Ringo Starr, Maureen Starkey, and Beatles assistant Mal Evans returning to England from California after Harrison filmed scenes for the Ravi Shankar documentary Raga. Shankar, a renowned Indian composer and musician, was a major influence on Harrison, and Harrison can be seen carrying his own sitar off the plane. Years earlier, in 1965, the Beatles became the first Western rock band to use the sitar on a commercial recording when they released the song “Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown).” It inspired fellow musicians to explore new sonic landscapes, paving the way for the Rolling Stones, Pink Floyd, and others to adopt the psychedelic sound that formed the soundtrack of the Swinging ’60s.

Carnaby Street (1967)

Carnaby Street was the beating heart of Swinging London. By 1967, it was home to several iconic clothing stores that helped define the fashion of the era. This included popular shops by men’s fashion tailor John Stephen, often dubbed the “King of Carnaby Street,” as well as Lady Jane, one of the first women’s boutiques on the street. Lady Jane caused a commotion when it opened in 1966. Live models changed outfits in the window display, drawing crowds big enough to stop traffic — and to attract famous customers including Mia Farrow and the Motown group Martha and the Vandellas.

This photo outside the iconic Lady Jane captures not only hip Londoners’ trendy clothing — including bright shades of pink and blue and short hemlines — but also radio DJ Tony Blackburn. Blackburn was a fixture of the British music scene, starting his career on the legendary pirate radio station Radio London. These illegal, ship-based stations played a crucial role in the Swinging ’60s. They brought the latest pop music to a voracious young audience that was, at the time, largely ignored by the BBC. When pirate stations were shut down, the BBC launched its own pop station with Radio 1, and Blackburn became its first DJ.

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The Cromwellian Club (1966)

In the mid-to-late ’60s, the Cromwellian Club was the place to be. Though it was rumored to have been an illegal casino in its early days, it transformed into a quintessential London venue after being acquired by successful restaurateur Tony Mitchell in 1964. The club's reputation soared when a few wrestlers-turned-promoters also bought into the business and started booking the entertainment. The three-floor spot had it all: a bar on the ground floor, a casino upstairs, and in the cellar, a legendary dance floor and live music venue, the lifeblood of the club.

It was here that Jimi Hendrix made his London debut and a who’s who of music royalty, from Eric Clapton to Stevie Wonder to Reg Dwight (now known as Elton John), regularly took to the stage to jam. Meanwhile, the dance floor buzzed with all-night energy; it wasn’t unusual to see members of the Beatles or Herman’s Hermits floating around alongside Hollywood heavyweights such as Jayne Mansfield and Sean Connery. The club’s time as a cultural cornerstone was meaningful but short-lived; by the end of the 1960s, the owners had moved on.

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The Swinging Blue Jeans (1963)

The Swinging Blue Jeans were one of the standout Merseybeat bands (a pop genre that emerged around Liverpool) of the 1960s, known for their hits “Hippy Hippy Shake” and “You’re No Good.” In 1963, Liverpool denim brand Lybro recruited the group to advertise the company’s new line of clothing — one made for teenage girls who wanted to dress like their favorite pop stars. In this photo, the group stands on the Eros statue stairs at London’s famed Piccadilly Circus. Between them are three young women, each dressed in a pair of jeans and a sleeveless, collarless vest jacket over what Lybro called its “hitch-hike shirt.”

After the end of World War II, denim evolved from its utilitarian roots into a symbol of youthful rebellion and casual cool. The Beatles also did an advertisement for Lybro jeans in 1963; other than their own merchandise, it was the only nonmusical product endorsement the band did in their career.

The Miniskirt (1967)

If just one piece of clothing had to be chosen as the defining garment of the Swinging ’60s, it would undoubtedly be the miniskirt. The sky-high hemline was a ubiquitous wardrobe staple by the mid-1960s, representing not only a fresh fashion trend but also a cultural rebellion. British designer Mary Quant is widely credited with inventing the style, and while her playful, youthful designs indeed helped define the looks of the era, Quant attributed the miniskirt’s origins to London’s creative and visionary street style.

In this 1967 photo, model Nicky Smith walks Carnaby Street in a gingham mini shift dress looking every bit the playful-yet-polished mod. If her look alone isn’t enough to encapsulate the essence of the era, her surroundings — at the intersection of Carnaby Street and Foubert's Place — certainly help. Behind Smith is a long-standing staple of Carnaby, Shakespeare’s Head pub, which claims roots dating back to the 1700s and a (very unlikely) connection to the Bard’s descendants. The Tudor-style building seen in this picture was rebuilt in the late 19th century; it stood throughout the entirety of London’s Swinging ’60s, and remains today.

What Life Was Really Like in Regency-Era England

Regency-era men and women

Author Rachel Gresh

May 7, 2024

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England’s Regency era was one of its most defining. During this time, Jane Austen published her first novels, bare-knuckle boxing was a favorite pastime, and young women carried around tiny portraits of the poet Lord Byron — the original teen heartthrob. The period, which spanned just nine years from 1811 to 1820, is named for its ruler, George Augustus Frederick, Prince of Wales (later King George IV), who was declared prince regent on February 5, 1811. The prince served as regent due to the illness of his father, George III (often referred to as the “Mad King”), before ascending to the throne in 1820 upon the king’s death.

The Regency era is undeniably popular in television and film, but contrary to what is portrayed in the hit Netflix series Bridgerton, life in England during this period went beyond the gossip of the “ton” (the British aristocracy), budding romances, and ornate ballroom parties. The period saw a flourishing of arts and literature and the start of the Industrial Revolution, all while being rocked by the Napoleonic Wars and the aftermath of American independence and the French Revolution. It was a time of great social strife, political changes, war, and technological advancements that permanently altered British society. Here is a snapshot of what life was like during the Regency era.

England Was Perpetually at War

England was embroiled in two major conflicts during the prince regent’s rule. The Napoleonic Wars began in 1799, and although the Duke of Wellington’s Anglo-Allied army ended Napoleon’s reign in June 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo, the British government had spent nearly £1.7 billion on the war effort (roughly $230 billion today) — an expense mainly shouldered by the British taxpayers. At the same time, England was at war with the newly independent United States yet again over maritime rights in the War of 1812. Along with taking a monetary toll on citizens, the war called many young men into battle. By the end of the Regency era, the British army grew to six times its previous size, to around 250,000 soldiers.

Wealth Inequality Was the Norm

Wealth inequality plagued Regency-era England, creating a rigid dichotomy between poor or working-class citizens and wealthy landowners and nobility. England’s involvement in multiple consecutive wars, combined with a rapidly rising population and the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, led to economic turmoil. Mechanized farming equipment and a burgeoning railway system caused many workers to lose their jobs. More and more factories began cropping up in Britain’s cities, leading to increasing numbers of people heading to urban centers to find employment. Many lived in overcrowded slums known as “rookeries.” The most notorious was St. Giles in London’s West End, an essentially lawless neighborhood run by gangs and overrun with gambling, theft, and violence. Nearby, at the Devil’s Acre slum (in present-day Westminster), the “Ragged School” for troubled youth is rumored to have inspired Charles Dickens’ Oliver Twist.

Upper-Class Society Revolved Around “the Season”

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In stark contrast to the widespread poverty in rookeries around British cities, aristocrats enjoyed attending up to two balls a week during what was known as “the season.” The season followed Parliament’s schedule, beginning whenever the new session opened (sometime between November and January) and extending through July when Parliament’s summer recess began. During this time, a few hundred wealthy families left their country homes and flocked to London to join the festivities. Not participating in the season was detrimental to social status, and the who’s who of the “ton” were sure to get invited to the most exclusive balls. These lavish events weren’t only for dancing — they were the perfect places to form business relationships. From courting young couples to wealthy landowners, everyone had something at stake.

Dating Was Tricky Business

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Regency-era aristocrats left little to fate when it came to love. During the season, young people were often coerced into advantageous relationships by their parents in hopes of gaining wealth, property, or status — even if that match was to a first cousin. Couples might court during afternoon tea, a walk in a garden, a concert, or a ball. Relationships were very public, and friends and family knew how the courtship was (or wasn’t) advancing.

Most importantly, the young couple could never be alone — a chaperone was always present. However, there is plenty of evidence from letters of the era that suggest young couples found ways to sneak off to steal a few minutes to themselves. (Some things never change.) Love letters became especially popular during the Regency era as reading and writing became commonplace, but even more special than a letter was the gift of a lock of hair.

The Beach Was a Favorite Pastime

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Wealthy Regency-era citizens were ballroom dancers by night and beachgoers by day, as sea-bathing — for recreational and medical purposes — became a favorite pastime in England. Its medicinal benefits were first explored in the early 18th century, and by the early 19th century, physicians were prescribing salt water soaks and seaweed rubdowns for any manner of illness. Because two of Brits’ favorite vacation destinations, France and Italy, were unreachable due to the Napoleonic Wars, many people turned to their local beaches for recreation, transforming small coastal towns into popular vacation destinations. Even Jane Austen was known to partake in the pursuit as she spent her summers at the shore, in the towns of Worthing, Dawlish, Sidmouth, and Lyme Regis (among others).

Regency-era beaches looked very different from modern beaches. It was deemed inappropriate for men to see women swimming, so “dippers” became a beachside staple. To swim in the ocean, women first entered “bathing machines” — essentially dressing rooms with wheels — which were pulled to the water’s edge by horses led by dippers. These dippers helped swimmers emerge through the back door, allowing them their dignity while enjoying the sea.

The Titles of British Nobility, Explained

U.K throne and flag

Author Tony Dunnell

April 10, 2024

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The British nobility is divided into tiers or ranks, known as the peerage. The roots of this hierarchical system date back around a thousand years; it began to gain a defined structure (as with many things in British history) after William I conquered England in 1066.

The peerage has five ranks: baron, viscount, earl, marquess, and duke, in ascending order. And within each tier, superiority is given to the holder of the oldest peerage. So, for example, the Duke of Devonshire is more senior than the Duke of Marlborough because the former title was created in 1694, eight years before the latter. While many titles are hereditary, it’s important to note that fewer than 90 peerages can be inherited by a female heir (in most cases the title would become extinct if there was no male heir). It’s a subject understandably under scrutiny by activists and some members of Parliament. Peerages are awarded through legal documents known as letters patent, which officially bestow a title in the name of the monarch.

Here is an introduction to the five tiers of peerage, from the lowest rank of baron to the highest title of duke.

Baron

The word “baron” — which possibly came from an Old German word meaning “man” — first appeared in English texts in the 13th century. It became part of the peerage system in 1387, when Richard II created the first formal baron by making John Beauchamp de Holt the Baron of Kidderminster. Further barons were appointed, all of whom were expected, when summoned, to attend council or Parliament. In Scotland, barons are known as Lords of Parliament. If a woman holds the rank, or is the wife of a baron, she is called a baroness. Currently, there are 426 hereditary barons and Lords of Parliament and nine hereditary baronesses and Ladies of Parliament in the United Kingdom — making it the most populated of all five peerage ranks.

Viscount

Viscount is the fourth rank of the British peerage system. The word comes from the Old French “visconte,” meaning the deputy or lieutenant of a count. (Despite having numerous counties, the United Kingdom has no counts. Historians disagree on why this is. Some have argued that the word “count” was rejected because it sounded too similar to a rather vulgar word in the English language, while others simply say it never gained traction because the older “earl” was already in use.) The rank of viscount was introduced in England in 1440, when King Henry VI gave John, Lord Beaumont the title of Viscount Beaumont, giving him precedence over all barons. Today, there are 115 viscounts in the British peerage. The oldest existing title — and therefore the highest ranking — is that of Viscount Hereford, created in 1550. A woman holding the rank or the wife of a viscount is known as a viscountess. Viscounts and viscountesses are formally addressed as “lord” or “lady,” respectively.

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Earl

The rank of earl is the oldest of all the titles in the English peerage. The word has its origins in the Scandinavian “jarl,” which became “eorl” in the Anglo-Saxon tongue. It first appeared in England during the reign of King Canute (or Cnut), who ruled from 1016 to 1035. It was the highest title available to the British nobility for some three centuries, until the creation of the duchy of Cornwall and with it, the title of duke. There is no female equivalent to the title of earl (such as “earless,” which could strangely imply someone with no ears), so female earls are known as countesses. Currently, there are 191 earls and only four countesses in their own right (versus the wives of earls) in Britain.

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Marquess

The title of marquess comes from the French “marquis,” meaning “march,” in reference to the marches (borders) between Wales, England, and Scotland. The earls and barons guarding these marches were known as marquesses, initially without any inference that they were superior in any way to their peers of similar rank. The title was formalized in 1385 when King Richard II made Robert de Vere, the ninth Earl of Oxford, the Marquess of Dublin. The title took precedence over that of earl, which caused great controversy at the time, resulting in the marquessate being revoked in 1386. It wasn’t until 1443, when Edmund Beaufort was given the title of Marquess of Dorset, that the rank retained its place in the peerage. There are only 34 marquesses in Britain today, the premier — or highest ranking — being the Marquess of Winchester, created in 1551. (Marquesses that were created earlier either became extinct or were raised to dukedoms.) The only woman ever appointed as a marquess in her own right was Anne Boleyn, who was made Marchioness of Pembroke just before her marriage to Henry VIII.

Duke

Duke is the highest rank of the British peerage system. It is the ultimate tier of the nobility, surpassed only by princes and kings. Princes, however, can also be dukes — and traditionally they are given a dukedom when they come of age or are married. The first British duke was created in 1337 when King Edward III gave his son, known as Edward the Black Prince, the title of Duke of Cornwall. Today, of course, Prince William and his wife Catherine are officially the Prince and Princess of Wales as well as the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge. (Prince Harry and Meghan, meanwhile, retain their titles of Duke and Duchess of Sussex.) At present there are 24 dukes, not including the royals. Understandably, it’s particularly difficult to become a duke or duchess. The last dukedom — the Duke of Westminster — was created by Queen Victoria in 1874, and is the most recent dukedom conferred on someone not related to the British royal family.

6 Inventions That Came Out of the Victorian Era

Bike pneumatic tires

Author Tony Dunnell

December 14, 2023

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Queen Victoria ruled Britain from 1837 until her death in 1901. Her reign of 63 years and 216 days was longer than that of any of her predecessors, and was exceeded only by Elizabeth II’s time on the throne. This period, known as the Victorian era, saw the British Empire expand to become the first global industrial power.

Fueled by the industrial revolution that began the previous century — which reshaped almost every existing sector of human activity — the era saw many breakthroughs in the arts and sciences (perhaps most notably, Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution) as well as great social change and political reforms. And, as people from the countryside began to move to urban industrial hubs in search of work, there was a rise in both education and affluence, further driving the wave of ideas and innovation.

Victorian-era Brits were avid inventors, and many of the creations from this time had a major impact not only in Britain but across the globe. That’s not to say that all Victorian innovations were a hit. The hat cigar holder, ventilating top hat, anti-garroting cravat, reversible trousers, and “corset with expansible busts” all rank among the less successful ideas. These failures, however, were far outweighed by the era’s many influential developments, some of which laid the foundation for our modern age, and are still used every day. Here are some of the greatest innovations of the Victorian era, from the telephone to the electric light bulb.

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Telephone

Scottish-born inventor Alexander Graham Bell is considered the father of the telephone, but a degree of controversy remains over who exactly invented the world-changing device. The American electrical engineer Elisha Gray filed a patent on the exact same day as Bell, in Washington, D.C., on February 14, 1876. We’ll never quite know how things played out in the patent office, but Bell’s documents were filed first, and he was awarded the patent on March 7. A few days later, he made the first-ever telephone call. He called his assistant, Thomas Watson, with the now-famous words, “Mr. Watson, come here. I want you.”

Bell, who had lived in Boston since 1871, was keen to introduce his invention to Britain, where, as a young man, he had received an expansive Victorian education in Scotland and London, and where he first began his experiments in sound. In August 1877, he toured Britain with his wife Mabel (it was supposed to be their honeymoon), promoting his invention as he went. He even demonstrated the newly invented telephone to Queen Victoria herself, who was so impressed she asked to keep the temporary installation in place.

Adhesive Postage Stamp

In 1837, English inventor Rowland Hill submitted a number of reforms to the British government regarding the existing postal system. Among his ideas was the use of an adhesive postage stamp. At the time, the postal service was unwieldy and rates were high — they were based on distance and the number of sheets in a letter, and the recipient paid for the delivery. Hill proposed a low-cost stamp based on weight, with the cost prepaid. This resulted in the Penny Black, the world’s first postage stamp, which cost a flat rate of one penny, regardless of distance. The idea was simple, but revolutionary. His adhesive stamp and associated reforms were soon adopted by other countries, and ultimately paved the way for modern postal systems around the world.

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Underground Railway

On January 10, 1863, the Metropolitan Railway opened to the public, becoming the world's first underground railway. Now part of the extensive London Underground, the original line ran for 3.75 miles between Farringdon Street and Bishop’s Road, Paddington. Hailed by The Timesas “the great engineering triumph of the day,” it consisted of open wooden carriages pulled by steam locomotives. Between 30,000 and 40,000 people attempted to travel on the railway’s opening day, causing chaos on the fledgling underground system. Despite the initial bedlam — and the sulfurous fumes released by the locomotives — the line was a huge success. In its first year, it carried 9.5 million passengers, showing cities around the world that underground railways were an excellent solution to growing congestion problems.

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Public Flush Toilets

Basic public toilets were part of the sanitation system of ancient Rome, but it wasn’t until the Victorian era that they became widespread — and flushable. This was all thanks to George Jennings, an English sanitary engineer who introduced his flushable public toilets — which he called “monkey closets” — at the Great Exhibition of 1851, held at London’s Crystal Palace. Visitors could spend one penny to use the facilities, and records show that 675,000 pennies were spent (this led to the expression “to spend a penny,” which Brits still use today to refer to a trip to the loo). Public toilets were soon installed in various cities across Britain. Typically, however, these facilities were designed only for men. Because of this, women were far more restricted than men when it came to traveling, something referred to as the “urinary leash.” But by the end of the era — thanks to campaigning and women’s role in the ever-growing economy — women’s amenities began opening in major cities.

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Electric Light Bulb

Decades before Thomas Edison patented the first incandescent light bulb in 1879, British inventors had already been working on the problem. James Bowman Lindsay and Warren de la Rue both created early versions of the light bulb, in 1835 and 1840, respectively. Then, in 1841, Frederick de Moleyns was granted the first patent for an incandescent lamp, which used powdered charcoal heated between two platinum wires. Then came English physicist and chemist Joseph Swan, who produced a primitive electric light in 1860 and, 20 years later, a practical light bulb. Both Swan and Edison applied for patents for their incandescent lamps in 1880. Litigation ensued, but was resolved when the two men formed a joint company in 1883. From there, there was no looking back. By 1893, even the chandeliers in Queen Victoria’s residence, Osborne House, had been wired for electricity.

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Pneumatic Tires

Robert William Thomson was a Scottish engineer who invented the pneumatic tire at the age of 23. He was granted the patent in 1846, for a hollow leather tire that enclosed a rubberized fabric tube filled with air. A set of his “aerial wheels” ran successfully for 1,200 miles on a horse-drawn carriage. At the time, however, the rubber required to make the inner tubes was prohibitively expensive, and so Thomson returned to solid tires. For 43 years, air-filled tires were all but forgotten.

Then came a second Scotsman, John Boyd Dunlop, who developed his own version of the pneumatic tire while trying to make his son’s bicycle more comfortable to ride. Dunlop patented his pneumatic bicycle tire in 1888. A year later, the competitive cyclist Willie Hume became the first man to fit his bike with Dunlop’s pneumatic tires, and he started winning races across Britain. Dunlop later lost his main patent when Thomson’s original patent was rediscovered. While Thomson is rightfully considered the inventor of the pneumatic tire, it’s Dunlop’s name that remains synonymous with tires today.

The 6 Wives of Henry VIII

Marriage of Henry VIII

Author Kristina Wright

December 14, 2023

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Henry VIII left an indelible mark on British history, though he is remembered as much for his insatiable appetite for women and food as for his shrewd political maneuvers. Born in 1491, Henry ascended the throne at the young age of 17, succeeding his father, Henry VII. His youth was marked by interests in the arts, sports, and education, making him the embodiment of a Renaissance man, as well as a promising and charismatic ruler. It was the monarch’s matrimonial escapades, however, that came to define his legacy.

Henry’s reign, spanning from 1509 to 1547, was characterized by a series of tumultuous marriages entwined in Tudor politics. You may be familiar with the old rhyme, “Divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived,” but here’s a closer look at the six women who became the wives of Henry VIII.

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Catherine of Aragon (queen consort: 1509-1533)

Henry VIII had been on the throne for only a few weeks when he married Catherine of Aragon. The daughter of Spanish rulers Ferdinand and Isabella, Catherine was six years older than Henry and was seen as a good match for the young monarch. Beautiful, well educated, and devoted to Henry, Catherine was also the king’s sister-in-law, having married his older brother Arthur in 1501, only to be widowed five months later at the age of 16. Her marriage to Henry lasted 24 years, but ended in divorce.

By all accounts, Henry had loved Catherine, but when she failed to give him a male heir, he asked Pope Clement VII to declare their marriage invalid, asserting that her marriage to Arthur made their union illegitimate in the eyes of God. When the pope refused, Henry divorced Catherine so he could marry his pregnant mistress (and Catherine’s lady-in-waiting), the French-educated Anne Boleyn, setting in motion his break from the Catholic Church and the establishment of the Church of England. Despite being divorced, dismissed from court, and kept from her only living child, Mary, Catherine’s devotion to Henry lasted until her death by cancer in 1536. The last line of the last letter she wrote him read, “Lastly, I make this vow, that mine eyes desire you above all things.”

Anne Boleyn (queen consort: 1533-1536)

Remembered as “Anne of a Thousand Days,” Anne Boleyn is perhaps the most famous of Henry’s wives, in part because of the grisly end she met just three short years after marrying the king. Anne gave birth to Henry’s second daughter, Elizabeth, just three months after she was crowned queen consort, and because Mary, Henry’s daughter with Katherine, had been declared illegitimate following their divorce, Elizabeth was named the heir to the throne. (She was crowned Queen Elizabeth I in 1559, and became one of the most famous monarchs in English history.)

After Anne suffered a series of miscarriages, including the stillborn birth of the son Henry so desperately wanted, Henry turned his attention to one of Anne’s ladies-in-waiting, Jane Seymour. Meanwhile, the king’s adviser Thomas Cromwell, who had once been an ally of Anne’s, built a case against her, accusing her of numerous crimes including adultery, treason, witchcraft, and incest. With little evidence presented to support any of her so-called crimes, Anne was nonetheless beheaded at the Tower of London in May 1536.

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Jane Seymour (queen consort: 1536-1537)

Having served as a lady-in-waiting to both Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour was well aware of Henry’s desire for a male heir. Her virtuous nature caught the Tudor king’s interest and, when she rejected a letter and purse of money from Henry on the grounds that her honor was more important than riches, he became even more besotted. Just days after Anne Boleyn’s death, the newly single Henry married Jane, making her his third wife.

Jane went on to do what Henry’s two previous wives had not: She bore him a living son. Her pregnancy was announced in March 1537 and Henry vowed to stay close to his wife. She gave birth to their son, Edward, on October 12, only to die 12 days later. Their marriage lasted just 17 months, but Jane was Henry’s only wife to die as queen and receive a royal funeral. At his death, Henry was buried near her in St. George’s Chapel at Windsor Castle.

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Anne of Cleves (queen consort: 1540)

Having lost Jane to complications from childbirth, Henry sought to form a political alliance with William, Duke of Cleves, the ruler of a Protestant territory in Germany, by marrying one of his sisters. Henry’s political motivations were only part of his reason for deciding to wed again — he also wanted a second son. He chose Anne of Cleves as his bride-to-be based on her portrait, and was bitterly disappointed by his betrothed’s appearance when they finally met, saying, “I see nothing in this woman as men report of her.”

Henry was no longer interested in marrying plain, innocent Anne, but there was no way to back out of the wedding, despite Thomas Cromwell’s attempts. Wanting to be free of his betrothed, Henry blamed her physical appearance on his inability to consummate their marriage and had their union annulled just six months later. Anne and Henry maintained an affectionate bond, however, and Anne outlived Henry and all of his other wives.

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Catherine Howard (queen consort: 1540-1542)

Having served as a lady-in-waiting to Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard was likely still a teenager when she caught Henry’s eye — but she was also far more experienced than her predecessor. Historians theorize that Catherine might have been sexually abused by her music teacher when she was a young teen, and she had relationships with both her grandmother’s secretary and one of Henry’s courtiers before marrying the aging monarch just a few weeks after his marriage to Anne of Cleves was annulled. Henry seemed happy with his young new bride, but when the truth about Catherine’s past relationships came to light, as well as accusations of an affair with Thomas Culpeper, a friend of the king’s, Henry had her stripped of her title and imprisoned. A few months later, she was beheaded for treason and adultery.

Catherine Parr (queen consort: 1543-1547)

Henry VIII’s last wife was Catherine Parr, a widow and scholar known as the “lucky queen,” as she survived the death of the fickle king. Married and widowed twice, Catherine met Henry while serving as a lady-in-waiting to his eldest daughter, Mary Tudor. Catherine’s mother, Maud, had been a lady-in-waiting for Catherine of Aragon, and Maud named her daughter in honor of Henry’s first wife. Catherine Parr resisted Henry’s marriage appeals at first, in part because she was in love with someone else in the king’s circle: Thomas Seymour, the brother of Henry’s third wife, Jane, and uncle to his son Edward.

But Henry was not deterred, and he married Catherine in 1543 at age 52. After their marriage, Catherine proved to be a unifying force as stepmother to Henry’s three children. A religious reformer and the first woman in England to publish a book in her own name, Catherine was widowed for a third time when Henry died on January 28, 1547. The king’s death made it possible for Catherine to marry Thomas Seymour, but she died from complications of childbirth shortly after, in September 1548.

5 Facts About England’s Elizabethan Era

Elizabeth at Tilbury

Author Adam Levine

July 25, 2023

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In 1558, Elizabeth Tudor assumed the throne of England and Ireland and began her reign as Queen Elizabeth I. From the moment she was crowned, Elizabeth was an unconventional ruler. She was only the second queen in England’s history to reign as the sole head of state, which made her a rarity not only in her own country, but throughout Europe in an era in which female monarchs were few and far between. Her lifelong refusal to marry also broke with tradition, and earned her the nickname “the Virgin Queen” (the state of Virginia is named in her honor). As a Protestant monarch, Elizabeth also had to withstand multiple assassination attempts from radical Catholic factions throughout her reign. Yet despite the challenges she faced, her reign is considered a golden age of English history.

Elizabeth’s rule lasted until 1603, and was marked by a period of relative peace and progress, during which England experienced radical cultural and political transformations that continue to resonate today. Elizabeth ruled over a nation that saw the early plays of William Shakespeare and some of Europe’s first expeditions to the Americas. Yet her time on the throne was also marked by moments of political and military crisis. For a quick look at what made this period of history truly unique, here are five facts about England’s Elizabethan age.

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Elizabeth’s Coronation Date Was Chosen Based on Astrology

Queen Elizabeth I was crowned on January 15, 1559, a date selected by one man: John Dee. Dee was an influential figure at court, and was well known as a mathematician and philosopher. But his interests also veered into the supernatural and occult, and he was known to dabble in astrology and numerology. His prophecy skills must have come highly recommended, because Elizabeth asked him to use an astrological reading to select the date of her coronation, believing that an auspicious date would bring her good fortune during her reign.

The Era Marked the Beginning of British Colonialism in the New World

During the Elizabethan age, England took the first steps toward transforming from a small island nation into a global empire. British navigators made some of the first voyages to the New World during Elizabeth’s reign, and explorer Francis Drake’s voyages to the Americas gave England its first territorial claim in the Americas. Upon his return, Drake was knighted by Elizabeth herself on board his ship the Golden Hind.

The queen also oversaw the establishment of England’s first colonies in the New World. The explorer Humphrey Gilbert claimed Newfoundland for Elizabeth, and Walter Raleigh established a British colony on the island of Roanoke near North Carolina. These early settlements marked the beginning of an era of colonial expansion that gave rise to the mighty British Empire, which at its peak in 1920 covered over 13 million square miles and was the largest empire the world has ever seen.

The Era Was a Time of Great Religious Upheaval

Elizabethan England wasn’t without its problems, and one of the most significant was the riff between English Catholics loyal to the Vatican and English Protestants loyal to the Church of England. As the head of the Church of England, Queen Elizabeth had a vested interest in religious conformity, and made it a legal requirement for all British subjects to attend Church of England services on Sundays, regardless of their religious affiliation. (She also made it a finable offense to attend a Catholic mass.) The tensions between Catholics and Protestants lasted throughout Elizabeth’s reign. The queen withstood four separate plots to overthrow her and replace her with her Catholic cousin, Mary, Queen of Scots; eventually, Elizabeth even had Mary executed for conspiring against her.

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It Was a Golden Age of British Theater

The Elizabethan age is often regarded as one of the high-water marks of English theater, which became a frequent destination for royalty and common English subjects alike. Some of the most celebrated playwrights ever to write in the English language created their best-known works during Elizabeth I’s reign. The most famous of these is, of course, William Shakespeare. Though Shakespeare’s career as a playwright continued after Elizabeth’s reign ended in 1603, many of the Bard’s most famous works were written while Elizabeth was queen, including A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Romeo and Juliet, and Hamlet. The queen even personally attended performances of The Merry Wives of Windsor and Love’s Labor’s Lost. But England’s dramatic output during Elizabeth’s reign wasn’t just limited to the Bard. Master dramatists such as Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, and Thomas Kyd all produced classic works during this era.

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It Saw England Defeat the Largest Fleet of Warships Ever Assembled (At the Time)

In 1588, Queen Elizabeth I faced the greatest military challenge of her reign: the Spanish Armada. The fearsome naval fleet was launched by King Philip II of Spain in an attempt to convert Protestant England to Catholicism and to neutralize the economic and political threats created by England’s growing power. The Spanish Armada was the largest naval fleet that had ever been assembled, with around 130 ships carrying more than 19,000 soldiers. Its size even earned it the nickname “the Invincible Armada.” Despite being outnumbered, the English were able to defeat the Spanish Armada, in part because of a devastating tactic in which eight ships were set on fire and sent into the midst of the Spanish fleet, forcing the ships of the Armada to scatter and weaken their formation. The English victory over the Spanish Armada signaled to the world that Queen Elizabeth I was a monarch to be reckoned with.

5 Fab Facts About Music’s British Invasion

The Beatles

Author Kristina Wright

July 19, 2023

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On February 7, 1964, the Beatles made their first visit to the United States, prompting Walter Cronkite to quip, “The British invasion this time goes by the code name ‘Beatlemania.’” The band was already popular in the U.K., but their instant appeal to audiences in the U.S. was unlike anything anyone had seen before; thousands of screaming teenagers met the Beatles’ plane at New York’s Kennedy Airport and thousands more were waiting for them to arrive at the Plaza Hotel. Not even Elvis Presley had generated that level of uninhibited euphoria, and it left people, especially the parents of all of those starstruck teens, curious about the shaggy-haired young men who were taking over the airwaves.

Before 1964, only two British singles had ever topped Billboard’s Hot 100 chart, and both of them were instrumentals. The Beatles’ popularity paved the way for many of Britain’s hottest acts to follow, from the Rolling Stones to the Who, ushering in a new musical era dominated by British performers. Here are five fun facts about the Fab Four and the musical phenomenon known as the British Invasion.

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Beatlemania Provided a Diversion to a Nation in Mourning

In February 1963, Chicago DJ Dick Biondi became the first disc jockey to introduce U.S. listeners to the Beatles when he played “Please Please Me,” the band’s first U.S. single. The song was picked up by other radio stations, but it was months before the Fab Four caught on in America. On the morning of November 22, 1963, CBS News aired a story about the Beatles’ popularity in England, but the segment on the band slotted for that evening was shelved when President John F. Kennedy was assassinated later that day.

A few weeks later, Walter Cronkite decided the country could use a break from their collective grief and decided to finally air the Beatles story. Marsha Albert, a 15-year-old girl from the suburbs of Washington, D.C., saw the segment and wrote to WWDC radio to request they play more of the band’s music. Disc jockey Carroll James had also seen the report, got a copy of the track “I Want to Hold Your Hand,” and invited Albert to come to the studio to introduce the song on December 17. Radio stations in other major markets followed suit, and Capitol Records, which had been planning to release the single in January, decided to rush-release it on December 26. The label originally planned for 200,000 copies to be pressed, but that jumped to 1 million — all of which were sold by January 10, 1964. Beatlemania had taken hold in the U.S. and the British Invasion was on its way.

Many British Bands Were Influenced by Black American Music

After the Beatles introduced the U.S. to their exciting new sound, they opened the door for many of the bands and solo artists who were already making waves in the U.K. While the beats sounded fresh and original to stateside listeners, many of the British performers were, ironically, influenced by American music, namely Black artists who were changing the musical landscape while facing discrimination in the industry that prevented them from topping the pop charts. British bands found inspiration in American blues, rock and roll, and rhythm and blues artists including Chuck Berry, Muddy Waters, Little Richard, and James Brown. U.S. audiences hungry for more of the sound that the Beatles helped popularize found what they had been craving in dozens of acts out of the U.K., including the Kinks, the Animals, Herman’s Hermits, and the Yardbirds. Their interesting fashion and charming accents only added to the appeal, and British performers began to dominate the American airwaves.

The Rolling Stones Didn’t Catch on at First

While 1964’s Beatlemania gave way to the full-fledged British Invasion, one of Britain’s best-known bands of all time took longer to catch on. The Rolling Stones are arguably just as legendary as the Beatles (an argument still going strong today), but American audiences didn’t warm up to them at first. The Stones were hitting the U.K. music charts in the summer of 1963, but they spent much of 1964 trying to make an impression on U.S. listeners. That changed in October 1964 when their appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show helped boost the single “Time Is on My Side” to No. 6 on the Billboard Pop Singles chart, giving the band their first top 10 hit in the U.S. In June 1965, the Stones saw their first No. 1 U.S. hit with “(I Can’t Get No) Satisfaction” — 11 months after their first U.K. No. 1, “It’s All Over Now.”

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The British Invasion Included Many Trailblazing Female Artists

When we talk about the British Invasion, the focus is usually on the male musicians who dominated the scene, but several British solo female artists also made a significant impact on the U.S. charts and American pop culture, and influenced future generations of solo performers. Among these stylish, talented young women were Dusty Springfield, Sandie Shaw, Petula Clark, and Marianne Faithfull. They introduced American audiences to the groovy fashions of “Swinging Sixties” London, and offered a different vision of 1960s womanhood than the all-girl groups who had topped the U.S. charts prior to 1964.

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It Helped Influence a Second British Invasion on MTV

The Beatles performed their last U.S. concert in 1966 at Candlestick Park in San Francisco, marking the unofficial end to the British Invasion. U.K. bands continued to cross the pond in search of new audiences and, by the late 1960s, the top records on the U.S. music charts were a balanced mix of acts from both sides of the pond. Though the Beatles had stopped touring, they continued to film their performances so they could be shown on TV without the band having to appear in person. Other British bands opted to trade live television appearances for recorded shows as well. These recordings evolved into short, image-conscious videos used to promote the music on television, which helped put U.K. bands ahead of the curve when MTV launched in 1981. American acts weren’t ready for the new medium, and the music channel initially relied on a heavy rotation of U.K. music videos to fill out their playlist; some bands debuted videos even before their music was played on U.S. radio stations. As MTV’s popularity and reach grew, the network helped create what was dubbed the “second British Invasion,” led by synth-pop and new wave bands such as Duran Duran, A Flock of Seagulls, The Human League, and Culture Club.

7 Facts About the Life and Reign of Queen Victoria

Queen Victoria’s family

Author Kristina Wright

July 18, 2023

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Few royal monarchs hold as much fascination as England’s Queen Victoria. Her lengthy reign and complex legacy left such a lasting mark on Britain and the world that the era still bears her name. At her birth on May 24, 1819, Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent was only fifth in line to the throne. She was never expected to be queen, but fate had other plans for young “Drina.” Victoria ascended the throne on June 20, 1837, less than a month after her 18th birthday, and ruled for more than 63 years — longer than any British monarch except for her great-great-granddaughter Queen Elizabeth II.

During her rule, the diminutive Queen Victoria developed a reputation as a strong-willed and outspoken sovereign committed to expanding and strengthening the British Empire. She oversaw a time of unprecedented industrial expansion, political reform, and social change in England, but her time on the throne was also marked by aggressive colonization. Britain’s imperial reach nearly doubled during Victoria’s reign, until some 25% of the world’s population owed their allegiance to her. Here are seven fascinating facts about the life of the monarch known as the “grandmother of Europe.”

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Victoria Was Delivered by a Woman Doctor

At a time when female doctors were rare, Victoria’s mother, Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, chose to have a woman deliver her baby, rather than a male royal doctor. In some historical resources, Charlotte Heidenreich von Siebold is referred to as a midwife or nurse, but she was formally educated in gynecology and obstetrics and received a doctoral degree in obstetrics from the University of Giessen in 1817. Madam Siebold, as she was called, delivered the future queen at Kensington Palace on May 24, 1819. Three months later, on August 26, 1819, von Siebold delivered Victoria’s first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, at Schloss Rosenau castle near Coburg, Germany.

Queen Victoria Was the First Monarch to Rule From Buckingham Palace

What is now Buckingham Palace was simply Buckingham House when King George III bought it in 1761 for his wife, Queen Charlotte, and their children. After George IV took the throne in 1820, he decided to turn the house into a proper palace and hired architect John Nash to oversee the grand, and expensive, project. The work was still not done when the king died in 1830, and he never lived in the home he’d envisioned. Following her accession to the throne in 1837, Queen Victoria became the first sovereign to make the palace her primary residence. During her reign, the queen oversaw additional renovations and updates to Buckingham Palace, including the installation of electricity in the ballroom in 1883. Queen Victoria also holds the distinction of making the first recorded royal appearance on the palace’s balcony. In 1851, she greeted the public during celebrations for the opening of the Great Exhibition, an international event showcasing advancements in technology from around the world.

Queen Victoria Was a Prolific Writer

Between her diaries and letters, Victoria wrote an estimated 60 million words over her lifetime. Her earliest journal entry, written in 1832 when she was 13, begins, “This book, Mamma gave me, that I might write the journal of my journey to Wales in it.” She continued to document her life for nearly 69 years, writing just 10 days before her death at age 81, “Had a fair night, but was a little wakeful.” At Victoria’s request, her journals were edited after her death by her youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice, presumably to remove anything inappropriate that would upset the royal family or tarnish the monarch’s legacy. Beatrice spent 30 years transcribing and editing her mother’s journals and destroyed many of the original volumes.

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Victoria Proposed to Her Husband, Prince Albert

Born three months apart, Victoria and her German cousin Prince Albert first met in 1836 when they were just teenagers. Their families had intended that they would one day marry, but most accounts suggest theirs was also a loving partnership, punctuated by the highs and lows of a long-term marriage. Following their introduction in 1836, the couple didn’t meet again until October 1839, and it was during that visit that they became engaged. Protocol prohibited Albert from asking for the reigning monarch’s hand, so it was up to Victoria to issue the proposal. In her diary, the queen later wrote, “Oh! how I adore and love him, I cannot say!” The couple were rarely together before their February 1840 wedding, but they often wrote to each other. In one letter to his betrothed, Albert wrote (in German), “Even in my dreams I never imagined that I should find so much love on earth.”

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She Popularized the White Wedding Gown

On her wedding day, Victoria wanted to be seen as Prince Albert’s wife rather than the queen of England, so she chose to wear a white gown instead of the red robe of state. Though she wasn’t the first monarch bride to wear white, it wasn’t a traditional choice for a royal wedding gown, or a nonroyal gown, for that matter. Victoria and Albert’s nuptials were highly publicized, and depictions of Victoria’s simple, elegant dress adorned with orange blossoms conjured an image of romantic purity that soon caught on with brides across Europe and the West. Constructed of silk and lace made in Britain — as both a show of patriotism and to boost a declining industry — the gown featured the nipped waist and full skirt that became the classic wedding dress silhouette.

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After Albert’s Death, She Wore Only Black

Though most of Victoria’s clothes were destroyed, portraits, fabric samples, and journal entries tell us that her early years as queen were highlighted by beautiful, colorful fashion. That changed when Prince Albert died in 1861 after a brief illness. The widowed monarch donned the traditional black mourning attire and ordered the royal household to remain in mourning for a year. Victoria, however, continued to wear black long after the traditional period of public mourning. In fact, she dressed in black (often with a white widow’s cap) every day for the rest of her life, until her own death in 1901.

Victoria’s Descendants Became Monarchs Throughout Europe

After surviving an isolating childhood and the strict set of rules known as the “Kensington System,” Victoria was eager to gain her independence when she ascended the throne at age 18. In fact, one of her first acts as queen was to claim a bedroom separate from her overprotective mother, the Duchess of Kent. Victoria and Albert’s marriage produced nine children in 17 years, and biographies of the queen often mention her distaste for pregnancy and childbirth — what she called the “shadow-side” of marital life.

Still, Victoria’s reign was defined by her desire to grow and strengthen the British Empire, and she balanced her responsibilities as a mother and sovereign by arranging marriages for her children that would increase British influence and assure strong connections throughout Europe. The first of the dynastic marriages arranged by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert was between their eldest daughter, Princess Victoria (Vicky), and the Crown Prince of Prussia, Friedrich Wilhelm, with the goal of unifying the German states and introducing the liberal political ideals of Great Britain. Victoria’s commitment to creating strong marital alliances throughout Europe continued with her other children and grandchildren; her heirs married into other royal families and ascended thrones in Denmark, Germany, Greece, Norway, Russia, and Spain. Of the roughly 28 monarchies that still exist today, five of them are held by Victoria’s descendants.

5 Strange Traditions of the British Monarchy

Swan-upping in 1951

Author Tony Dunnell

June 12, 2023

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Britain is a nation of many strange old traditions, from cheese rolling and wife carrying to mayor weighing and possibly the world’s most brutal ball game. Then there’s the British royal family, an almost endless source of quirky behavior and bizarre rituals. Some of these are well known, at least among Brits, such as the use of the majestic plural, better known as the “royal we” (Queen Elizabeth II often used “we” to refer to herself), and the monarch’s custom of having two birthdays. Other odd traditions of the British royals are less well known, despite having existed for centuries. Here are some of the strangest, involving everything from swans to ravens to parliamentary hostages.

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Swans Are Ceremonially Counted on the River Thames

Since medieval times, the British monarch has had certain rights when it comes to the country’s swans. “The king has the right to claim any swan swimming in open waters, unmarked, if he so wishes,” explained David Barber, who served as Queen Elizabeth II’s swan marker (an actual position in the royal household that dates back to the 12th century). To this day, an annual census of the swans takes place on a stretch of the River Thames. The five-day journey upriver, known as “swan upping,” features a fleet of traditional rowing skiffs, led by the swan marker. The royals once considered swans a delicacy, but swan upping is now focused on conservation and education rather than any culinary considerations.

A Member of Parliament Is Taken Hostage When the Monarch Visits

Back in the 17th century, King Charles I had a contentious relationship with Parliament. (It didn’t end well for Charles, who was executed for high treason in 1649.) As the story goes, the king feared for his own safety every time he visited the legislative houses, and so he decided to take a hostage who would be held at Buckingham Palace as insurance until his safe return. The tradition has continued to the present day. Every year, when the monarch goes to the State Opening of Parliament, a member of Parliament is symbolically held hostage at the palace — probably being served copious amounts of tea and scones — until the king or queen returns.

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Sheriffs Are Appointed By Pricking Parchment With a Sewing Needle

Apart from the crown itself, the oldest secular office in the United Kingdom is the Office of High Sheriff, which has existed for more than 1,000 years. These sheriffs, or “shire-reeves,” were appointed each year by the monarch to maintain law and order within a shire, or county. For centuries, these appointments have been marked on a parchment roll in an unusual fashion. Rather than use a pen or even a quill, the monarch instead pricks the parchment using a bodkin, a silver needle normally used for hand-sewing. The practice is often said to have begun with Queen Elizabeth I, who supposedly chose to perforate the parchment while embroidering in the garden, simply because it was easier than using a pen. But this is a colorful myth, as a “pricked” sheriffs’ roll exists from the reign of Elizabeth’s grandfather, Henry VII. Pricking was likely favored for practical reasons: A pen mark could easily be erased with a knife, but a hole was far more difficult to hide or repair without someone noticing.

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Six Ravens Must Reside in the Tower of London to Protect Britain

According to British legend, both crown and country will fall if the Tower of London’s resident ravens ever leave their post. Various stories exist to explain this royal tradition, but the most pervasive legend comes from the 17th century and the reign of Charles II. It is said that the royal astronomer, John Flamsteed, complained about the ravens interfering with his observatory work, prompting the king to order their elimination. But Charles was warned that should the ravens leave, a “great disaster” would befall the nation. Heeding this advice, the king decreed that ravens should be kept at the tower at all times. During World War II, the number of resident ravens decreased to just one, and when the war was over officials ordered that their numbers be increased once again to six.

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The Duke of Wellington's Rent Is the French Flag

Every year since 1817, the presiding Duke of Wellington pays a visit to the king or queen to pay his rent. But instead of money, the duke presents the monarch with the tricolor flag of France. This strange tradition came about following the heroic efforts of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. Wellington’s leadership was vital in the pivotal victory against Napoleon Bonaparte’s French army, in a battle that marked the end of the Napoleonic Wars. For his efforts, Wellington was gifted Stratfield Saye House, a country estate in Hampshire. To this day, the duke continues to pay his symbolic annual rent of one French flag — a copy of the tricolor captured at Waterloo. In theory, the duke and his family could be ignominiously kicked out of their property should the rent not be paid. For this reason, a spare copy of the flag is kept at Stratfield Saye, just in case anything goes awry.

6 Shocking ‘Scientific’ Beliefs From Victorian England

Telepathy

Author Adam Levine

June 12, 2023

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Britain’s Victorian era — defined by the reign of Queen Victoria, from 1837 to 1901 — was a time of great scientific discovery. In this period, Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection laid the groundwork for evolutionary science and all of modern biology, while Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism set the stage for the discoveries of Albert Einstein and other great physicists of the 20th century. But the Victorian age was also marked by some scientific beliefs that were, shall we say, a bit less theoretically sound. In fact, some of the commonly held beliefs of this time are downright shocking in the context of our modern understanding of the world. Here are six Victorian-era “scientific” beliefs that were more than a little off the mark.

Photo credit: Public Domain/ photo by Nadar/ Wellcome Collection

Diseases Were Caused By Bad Smells

Before people had a firm grasp of germ theory, the conventional belief among everyday people and scientists alike was that diseases were caused by foul odors, or noxious “miasma,” that were emitted from rotting organic matter and traveled through the air to cause infections. Disease-prevention measures in Victorian England often took the form of eliminating bad smells rather than treating contaminated water for pathogens. Miasma theory was gradually replaced with germ theory as the dominant scientific explanation for illness around the 1870s, when scientists such as Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch provided experimental evidence that microorganisms — and not the unpleasant odors they produced — were responsible for infectious diseases.

Nearly Any Ailment Could Be Cured by an Electric Shock

The advancements in electrical science that occurred during the Victorian age led to some remarkable inventions, such as the telegraph and the electric lightbulb. But they also led to some overenthusiastic and misguided beliefs about the power of electricity to do, well, pretty much anything — including heal the body of just about any ailment imaginable. The latter half of the 19th century saw the proliferation of household inventions meant to administer electric shocks to the user. Devices as varied as electric hair brushes, electric corsets, and electric suspenders began finding their way into Victorian households, all promising to improve people’s health by providing them with a sturdy jolt of electricity. The most prominent of these “electrotherapy” devices was the electropathic belt, which was studded with diodes that users placed directly onto their skin to provide themselves with small shocks throughout the day. Needless to say, these contraptions produced minimal health benefits.

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The Eyes of a Murder Victim Could Reveal an Image of the Killer

In the second half of the 19th century, it was commonly believed that the retina of a deceased person carried the image of the last thing they saw in life as a permanent imprint known as an “optogram.” Forensic scientists even theorized that the optograms of murder victims could bear the image of their killers, and could therefore be used to solve crimes. The belief in optograms was so widespread that particularly careful criminals would destroy their victims’ eyeballs to prevent investigators from extracting an incriminating image. Though optograms have been thoroughly debunked by modern science, the belief in their utility as a crime-solving tool persisted all the way into the 1920s.

Photo credit: Public Domain/ Wellcome Collection

The Shape of a Person’s Skull Determined Their Personality

Phrenology, the belief that a person’s personality was determined by the contours of their skull, is one of the most infamous pseudoscientific beliefs of the Victorian era. Bumps on the skull were said to predict everything from whether a person was predisposed to be “secretive” to whether they were destined to become a killer. One of the uglier applications of phrenology was as a tool to “scientifically” justify the racist beliefs of the era. This has earned phrenology a reputation as not just bad science, but a potential tool of oppression, too.

Telepathy Could Be Used to Transfer Healthy Thoughts to People

Many medical professionals in Victorian England believed in the power of “thought transference,” or telekinesis, and its ability to transmit healthy thoughts into the mind of a suffering patient to alleviate mental anguish. Thought transference was even actively studied by the scientific establishment: In 1882, a group of British researchers founded the Society for Psychical Research, which was dedicated to applying scientifically rigorous study to supernatural phenomena, including mind transfer. Numerous scholarly articles were published on the efficacy of telekinesis, including a lengthy treatise on the scientific principles of moving objects with one’s mind.

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An Advanced Civilization Had Built an Irrigation System on Mars

In 1877, the Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli discovered the presence of long, winding markings on the surface of Mars. Schiaparelli called these markings “canali,” or “channels.” However, many English speakers had mistranslated the word as “canals” — a word that suggests artificial origin. One overenthusiastic American astronomer named Percival Lowell took this idea and ran with it; he published several books arguing that the markings were evidence of a complex irrigation system built by an advanced civilization on the red planet. Lowell’s theories generated widespread public excitement and he led a successful career as a lecturer expounding upon his theories of Mars as an “abode of intelligent constructive life.” While Lowell’s ideas captivated the Victorian public, his theories were thoroughly debunked by the time of his death in 1916 — but not before his depictions of Martian “canals” helped cement the planet in the public imagination as a potential home for extraterrestrial life.

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