5 of the Most Famous Telegrams in History

Delivering a telegram

Author Timothy Ott

June 30, 2025

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Although it still exists, the telegraph has been all but forgotten in a world dominated by instant digital messaging, relegated to the archives of 20th-century institutions alongside the corner phone booth and the horse and buggy. Yet there was a time when this form of communication was the best and most efficient way to deliver a message across significant distances. Western Union, the largest provider of the service, logged more than 200 million telegrams sent in its peak year of 1929.

Given the telegraph’s popularity, it’s not surprising that numerous important messages from the past two centuries traveled by way of telegram, some of which inspired notable changes to global events while others provided appropriate commentary to historic moments as they unfurled. Here are five such transmissions that have proved to possess staying power even as the technology that provided them has largely been pushed aside.

Samuel Morse’s Test Message From the U.S. Capitol

On May 24, 1844, some 12 years after he set about devising a way to transmit information by way of an electrical current, Samuel F.B. Morse prepared to showcase his perfected invention before an influential audience in the U.S. Capitol. Morse transmitted the words “What hath God wrought” — a message inspired by the Bible, suggested by the patent commissioner’s daughter — over a copper wire that followed the B&O Railroad line nearly 40 miles to a Baltimore station. There, his assistant Alfred Vail received the message and replied with the same phrase from a second machine.

This wasn’t the first example of a working telegraph. Inventors William F. Cooke and Charles Wheatstone had unveiled their version in the United Kingdom in 1837, and Morse and his team had previously conducted demonstrations across shorter distances. However, this particular showing, colored by a message hinting at divine intervention, has endured as the impetus for the rapid spread of this novel communication system over the following decade.

Greetings From the Frozen North

“Stars and stripes nailed to the North Pole” — so came the telegraphed revelation from explorer Robert Peary to The New York Times on September 6, 1909, trumpeting a successful effort to reach the top of the world. However, Perry’s message arrived five days after a less emphatically worded telegram from explorer Robert Cook. His message — “Reached North Pole. April 21, 1908. Discovered land far north” — announced similar news to The New York Herald.

The dueling telegrams encapsulated the thrill of the race that gripped the public imagination at the time, and the drama that was to unfold over which explorer garnered the glory for reaching the finish line first. Although Cook’s claim was soon discredited due to a lack of proper documentation of the discovery, Peary’s “proof” was also dismissed several decades later, and to this day, it’s unclear if either man ever reached his elusive destination.

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The World War I-Altering Zimmerman Telegram

In the early weeks of 1917, the United States government was still maintaining a neutral stance in the war that raged on the other side of the Atlantic. However, British code breakers in January intercepted a telegram sent from German Foreign Secretary Arthur Zimmermann to the country’s minister to Mexico, which proposed an alliance and an offer to help America’s southern neighbor “reconquer the lost territory in Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.”

After waiting until tensions were inflamed by Germany’s resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare, British intelligence unveiled the Zimmermann telegram to U.S. officials in late February. The revelation had the desired effect, as calls for Germany’s punishment echoed throughout the American press over the next few weeks, until the United States formally entered World War I in April.

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The Cold War-Igniting “Long Telegram”

Two weeks after Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin delivered a jarring election speech about the evils of capitalism, the acting U.S. ambassador to the Soviet Union, George F. Kennan, weighed in on the matter with an unusually lengthy telegram to the U.S. Department of State on February 22, 1946.

Often mistakenly said to total more than 8,000 words — although still a whopper at something closer to the 5,500-word mark — the so-called “Long Telegram” outlined its author’s views of USSR leadership as “impervious to logic of reason” and “highly sensitive to logic of force,” from which “no permanent peaceful coexistence” could be forged.

Coupled with the follow-up explanations in his 1947 article “The Sources of Soviet Conduct” for Foreign Affairs magazine, Kennan’s analysis became the basis for a decisive American policy stance that ignited the Cold War and shaped geopolitics for the next half-century.

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The H-Bomb Creator’s Announcement

Even while helping to build the atomic bomb as a member of the Manhattan Project, Hungary-born physicist Edward Teller was obsessed with the idea of developing an even more potent explosive. He received the go-ahead from the White House in the wake of the Kennan-inspired shift toward a strategy of combating Soviet aggression, as well as an assist from Polish American mathematician Stanisław Ulam on the problem of introducing enough heat to trigger the immense energy-producing process of nuclear fusion.

On October 31, 1952, knowing that a secret test of the hydrogen bomb was underway some 4,700 miles across the Pacific Ocean in the Marshall Islands, Teller carefully watched a seismograph from a basement laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley. Upon seeing a telltale flicker, Teller reached out to his former colleagues at the Los Alamos facility in New Mexico with a succinct telegram announcing the arrival of the most powerful weapon yet created by human hands: “It’s a boy.”

What Did Gas Cost in the 1950s?

Filling a gas tank, 1951

Author Mark DeJoy

June 30, 2025

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The 1950s were a transformative decade for transportation in the United States. Factors such as postwar prosperity, suburban living, and a decline in public transit led to a major increase in car ownership. At the start of the decade, approximately half of Americans owned an automobile; by 1960, nearly 75% of Americans owned at least one car, and many owned two. It was the golden age of the automobile.

Of course, a car can’t go anywhere without gasoline, so what did this trend mean for the price of gas? When we look back at the past, we tend to see lower prices and feel a sense of nostalgia for more affordable times. But vintage prices can be tricky; simply looking at a raw retail price from 70 years ago doesn’t tell the whole story. Let’s look at the numbers when adjusted for inflation to find the average cost of gas throughout the 1950s.

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1950-1952

According to the U.S. Department of Energy, the national average for the cost of gasoline remained steady for the first three years of the 1950s at $0.27 per gallon. That low price might sound practically idyllic, but the average household income at the time was $3,300 per year. Adjusted for inflation, $0.27 in 1950 equates to about $3.52/gallon in today’s dollars. Nowadays, the median household income is $74,580.

1953-1955

The Korean War, which began in June 1950, ended with an armistice in July 1953. A recession ensued that was typical of postwar economic cycles, as government spending decreased and military support operations were decommissioned. In the aftermath of the war, the gross domestic product of the U.S. fell by 2.2%. Unemployment, which had been steadily decreasing heading into the 1950s, began to increase. By September 1954, unemployment peaked at 6.1% — a rate not seen since before the conflict.

Despite the economic downturn, the average family income was higher than during the war, at around $4,200 per year. Gas prices followed suit and increased to an average of $0.29 per gallon between 1953 and 1955, though it was much cheaper in oil-producing areas of the country. For instance, in Omaha, Nebraska, gas was $0.179 per gallon in 1953. That’s about $2.11 in today’s money, while the national average of $0.29 is about $3.40 today.

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1956-1959

In June 1956, Congress approved the Federal-Aid Highway Act, which called for the construction of 41,000 miles of interstate highways throughout the country. It was the largest public works project to date, and helped boost an economy that had already started to rebound in 1955. Construction on some spans of highway began almost immediately, with segments opening as early as the following autumn. The new roads provided increased access to suburban areas, which, combined with government programs and other socioeconomic factors, spurred the rise of the suburbs.

Part of the revenue stream for the new highway system was a gas tax increase, which rose from 2 cents per gallon to 3 cents per gallon. In response, the price of gas fluctuated between a 1-cent and 2-cent increase for the rest of the 1950s. In 1956, the national average was $0.30 per gallon, or around $3.47 today; in 1959, it was $0.31, the equivalent of $3.34 today.

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Present Day

Depending on where you live, you might have noticed that the present-day dollar equivalents of those 1950s prices are right in line with what gas currently costs. According to AAA, the current national average is about $3.45 per gallon; the U.S Energy Information Administration lists a similar average of about $3.44 per gallon. By those metrics, the price of gas in 1950 was essentially higher than it is today. That said, if you live on the West Coast (which has the highest regional fuel cost, at approximately $4.30 per gallon), you might still be feeling nostalgic for 1950s gas prices.

Who Portrayed Abraham Lincoln Most Accurately?

Daniel Day-Lewis in “Lincoln”

Author Michael Nordine

June 30, 2025

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Only one person has been portrayed on-screen more than Abraham Lincoln, and he doesn’t actually exist: Sherlock Holmes. Honest Abe has been inspiring filmmakers since 1908, when Van Dyke Brooke directed The Reprieve: An Episode in the Life of Abraham Lincoln, and has since appeared in more than 300 movies.

An unknown actor played the 16th president in The Reprieve, which concerned Lincoln’s pardon of the “sleeping sentinel” — a Union soldier who fell asleep on duty and was initially sentenced to death for his mistake. Given Lincoln’s status as one of America’s most revered leaders, it’s little surprise that the first movie made about him focused on his mercy and compassion — traits highlighted in just about every other film inspired by Lincoln.

But which of these portrayals was most accurate? Before answering that, it’s worth taking a look at some honorable mentions.

Noteworthy Films About Lincoln

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Young Mr. Lincoln (1939)

Before he was president, Lincoln worked as a lawyer. Oscar-winning director John Ford chose to focus on this era of Honest Abe’s life in his excellent biographical drama. Henry Fonda — another screen legend who received an Oscar nomination for his leading role in The Grapes of Wrath and also starred in such classics as The Lady Eve and 12 Angry Men before winning Best Actor for 1981’s On Golden Pond — was perfectly cast as the idealistic attorney defending two brothers who are falsely accused of murder.

Screenwriter and critic Frank Nugent lauded Fonda’s performance as one of those “once-in-a-blue-moon things: a crossroads meeting of nature, art, and a smart casting director. Nature gave Mr. Fonda long legs and arms, a strong and honest face, and a slow smile; the make-up man added a new nose bridge.” You could argue that on a physical level, Fonda captured Lincoln’s essence better than any other actor.

The Tall Target (1951)

Despite being the title character in Anthony Mann’s underseen thriller, Lincoln himself appears for less than a minute of The Tall Target. And yet the film is worth mentioning not only because it’s a good movie but also because it focuses on a lesser-known chapter of the former president’s life: the unsuccessful Baltimore Plot. The assassination attempt occurred just prior to Lincoln’s inauguration and was initiated by Southern sympathizers to prevent him from taking office. Dorothea Dix, a nurse who heard rumors of the conspiracy and alerted authorities, described it simply: “Mr. Lincoln’s inauguration was thus to be prevented, or his life to fall a sacrifice.” Leslie Kimmel played Lincoln during what was essentially a cameo appearance, doing a fine job given his limited screen time.

Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter (2012)

This adaptation of the novel by Seth Grahame-Smith deserves a brief mention for the outlandishness of its premise. Though it’s feasible that Lincoln might have spent nights and weekends slaying the undead if they actually existed, they of course do not. Manohla Dargis of The New York Times put it best when she wrote that the title Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter is so good that “it’s too bad someone had to spoil things by making a movie to go with it.”

The Most Accurate Portrayal

Lincoln (2012)

On the question of both the best and most accurate portrayal of Lincoln, the consensus is clear: Daniel Day-Lewis in Steven Spielberg’s Lincoln. Between 2002 and 2017, Day-Lewis appeared in just seven movies. He received Oscar nominations for four of them, and won twice: once for There Will Be Blood and again for Lincoln. The famously unprolific thespian is among the most renowned screen actors of all time, and the many fans who were saddened to hear of his second retirement following Phantom Thread are surely looking forward to his return in 2025’s Anemone, which was directed by his son Ronan.

While there’s no question that Day-Lewis’ portrayal of Honest Abe was amazing — in addition to his third Academy Award, he also won a BAFTA Award, Golden Globe, and Screen Actors Guild Award, among others — many viewers were naturally curious as to its historical accuracy.

The actor, whose reputation for being choosy about his roles precedes him, was hesitant to sign on to the project because, he told The New York Times, he felt that Lincoln had “been mythologized almost to the point of dehumanization.” He only accepted the role on the condition that he be given a year to prepare, which he spent reading books about the president as well as Lincoln’s own speeches. Latching on to historical accounts that Lincoln had a somewhat reedy voice, Day-Lewis made this a crucial aspect of his performance — in part because high-pitched voices carry better in crowds, which could have contributed to Lincoln being such a compelling orator.

The result received high marks from historians. In an interview with NPR, A. Lincoln: A Biography author Ronald White praised Day-Lewis for his “delicate balance between the homely Lincoln — the homespun Lincoln — and the high Lincoln of the second inaugural address,” adding that the actor “walks like Lincoln, the way he puts his feet down one at a time. He talks like Lincoln — not the baritone voice of Disneyland, but the high tenor voice. Daniel Day-Lewis studied Lincoln intensely, and what comes out is a very accurate depiction of the spirit of the man.”

Allen Guelzo, a Civil War professor at Gettysburg College, was similarly laudatory. “I remember thinking afterwards that all the time I’d been watching the movie I had never thought that Daniel Day-Lewis was acting,” he said in an interview, “because what he portrayed seemed so close to my own mental image of what Lincoln must have been like.” Given the universal praise and bevy of awards Day-Lewis received for his performance, it’s hard to disagree.

For similar articles, subscribe to our sister brand Movie Brief, brought to you by our resident film critic Michael Nordine. You’ll receive a weekly review and recommendation of a new movie, whether in theaters or available to stream, as well as a list of 25 must-see movies when you first sign up.

Why Do We Throw Rice at Weddings?

Rice thrown at wedding, 1952

Author Kristina Wright

June 30, 2025

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If you’ve been to a few weddings, you probably know the flow by now: the vows, the kiss, and then the party, with a few time-honored traditions woven in. One of the most iconic rituals? Guests showering the newlyweds with rice as they make their grand exit. It’s a festive moment and makes for a great photo — but have you ever stopped to wonder where this tradition comes from?

What may seem like a simple gesture is actually rooted in centuries of symbolism. That tiny grain of rice carries big meaning, representing fertility, abundance, and good fortune — and the practice shows up in different forms across cultures and eras. Let’s take a look at how rice-throwing became a wedding classic, and why grain-tossing rituals have endured through the centuries.

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Grains Were Linked to Ancient Fertility

In ancient agricultural societies, fertility wasn’t just desirable — it was vital to both survival and spiritual life. Ensuring crops grew, families expanded, and communities thrived depended on a close relationship with the natural world. People believed that calling on the natural crop cycles — planting, harvest, and renewal — during a marriage could help ensure the couple’s future would be equally productive. Showering newlyweds with grains was a symbolic way of welcoming the life-giving forces of nature into the new union.

Among early cultures such as the Celts and Mesopotamians, native grains including wheat and barley were considered sacred symbols of abundance and growth. These grains played a role in wedding ceremonies as offerings to spirits or deities associated with fertility and harvest. In some traditions, they were thrown at the bride and groom to bless them with children and prosperity. The act of tossing grain physically reinforced the hope that their marriage would be as fruitful as a well-tended field.

Greeks and Romans Tossed Grains To Call on the Gods

As civilizations became more organized, these agricultural customs became woven into more formal religious traditions. In ancient Rome, guests often tossed wheat or barley at weddings in honor of Ceres, the goddess of agriculture, fertility, and family. Roman brides sometimes wore crowns or garlands of wheat in their hair, highlighting their expected role in continuing the family line.

Greek ceremonies included similar practices, invoking Demeter, the goddess of the harvest, through offerings of grain. These were not simply quaint traditions — they reflected larger beliefs about the social order, divine favor, and the sacredness of the household. In both cultures, grains were offered not only for luck but also as part of a broader worldview that linked successful marriages with divine blessing and societal stability. A good harvest and a good marriage were seen as intertwined — and both needed the favor of the gods.

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Rice Played a Sacred Role in Ancient Asian Ceremonies

While wheat and barley featured prominently in the West, rice took on sacred importance in many Asian cultures. In China, rice has symbolized life, wealth, and harmony with nature for thousands of years. Historically, rice featured prominently in ancestral offerings and seasonal rites, and its association with fertility and family continuity made it a natural part of wedding customs. In some regions, for instance, rice was scattered around newlyweds to bless the union or offered to ancestors to gain their favor for the marriage.

In India, rice has been integral to Hindu wedding rituals for thousands of years. One of the most meaningful customs is Akshata, in which whole grains of rice — often dyed with turmeric or vermilion — are showered on the bride and groom as a symbol of abundance, fertility, and divine favor.

Across Southeast Asia, similar rituals appear, many tied to local fertility goddesses, such as Dewi Sri in Indonesia. Wedding ceremonies often include offerings of rice to spirits or deities to ensure harmony, fertility, and a blessed union. In these cultures, rice is not just food but also spiritual currency, deeply connected to the cycles of life and marriage.

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Rice Was Introduced to Europe Through Trade

Despite its importance elsewhere, rice was largely unfamiliar in Europe until it began arriving via trade routes from Asia and the Middle East. By the Middle Ages, it had made its way into European markets, thanks to expanding contact with the Islamic world in places such as Spain and Sicily, and increased trade spurred by the Crusades.

At first, rice was considered a luxury item — rare, expensive, and used mostly by the wealthy. But over time, it became more accessible and began appearing in ceremonial contexts, including weddings. Its symbolism — fertility, longevity, and abundance — dovetailed neatly with older European traditions. Long before rice arrived, rural communities used native grains such as wheat, oats, and barley in wedding rites to bless the couple with prosperity and children.

By the 19th century, throwing rice at weddings had become a widespread and beloved tradition in Western cultures. It was a way of honoring ancient fertility symbols with a modern twist, combining imported ingredients with long-held wishes for joy, health, and a flourishing family life.

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How the Rice-Throwing Ritual Has Changed

In recent decades, the tradition of throwing rice has shifted as couples opt for alternatives that are either more environmentally friendly or better suited to specific venues. Today, it’s not uncommon to see guests showering newlyweds with dried flower petals, birdseed, bubbles, or biodegradable confetti. These variations serve the same symbolic purpose — celebrating the beginning of a new life together with joy and good wishes — while also accommodating modern sensibilities.

Some venues discourage the use of rice because of cleanup concerns or the widespread (but incorrect) belief that it harms birds. That myth, which gained traction in the 1980s, claimed that birds would eat the rice, which would swell in their stomachs and cause injury or death. However, wildlife experts and ornithologists have since debunked that idea. Birds can digest uncooked rice just fine — after all, it’s a staple food for many wild species around the world.

While fewer couples may use rice today, the impulse behind the tradition endures. Whether it’s a cloud of bubbles or a scatter of petals, these celebratory send-offs are a continuation of an ancient wish: that the couple’s new life will be fruitful, joyful, and blessed with abundance.

Why Do We Call Them ‘Ivy League’ Schools?

Harvard University campus

Author Kristina Wright

June 30, 2025

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“Ivy League” is a term that evokes images of the hallowed vine-covered walls of some of the most elite educational institutions in the world. The Northeastern United States is home to the eight private research colleges and universities that make up the Ivy League, including Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island; Columbia University in New York City; Cornell University in Ithaca, New York; Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire; Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts; University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Princeton University in Princeton, New Jersey; and Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut.

Of this group of exclusive schools, all but Cornell University, which was founded in 1865, are also colonial colleges — the nine institutions of higher education that were chartered before the United States was founded. The other two colonial colleges, Rutgers University in New Jersey and the College of William & Mary in Virginia, are public universities, which excludes them from the Ivy League.

Everyone has an idea of what having an Ivy League education means, but what, exactly, is the origin of the name itself? Here’s how this group of prestigious institutions came to be called the Ivy League.

“Planting the Ivy” Was a Tradition at Many Colleges

The ivy-covered buildings on a college campus have come to signify tradition, longevity, and prestige. This symbolism dates back to a 19th-century university ritual called “planting the ivy,” an annual ceremony in which graduating seniors would plant ivy on campus, usually near a wall or building, and commemorate the event with a decorated stone engraved with their graduation year. Planting the evergreen vine, which has long symbolized everlasting life, devotion, fidelity, and loyalty, was often a traditional part of Class Day, the day before commencement, when the senior class would celebrate the completion of their courses with festivities, speeches, and the presentation of awards. At Harvard University, the ceremonial planting of the ivy dates back to at least 1850, though the celebration of Class Day is even older.

Some schools designated a specific day as Ivy Day, which was a more sentimental occasion than Class Day. In 1873, on the first Ivy Day at the University of Pennsylvania, an ivy twig was imported from Scotland and an invocation was made at the planting: “Having been nurtured this far in its development, it is now able to take roots for itself and grow greater and greater through the years.” While planting ivy isn’t a tradition exclusive to Ivy League colleges, the association, and all it represents, endures. Today, Ivy Day is the day when all eight Ivy League schools release their regular admission decisions.

A Sports Writer Coined the Term “Ivy Colleges”

Football probably isn’t the first thing most people think about when they hear the term “Ivy League,” but that is where the term originated. On October 14, 1933, New York Herald Tribune sports writer Stanley Woodward used the term “ivy colleges” when reporting on upcoming football games between several Northeastern colleges and their opponents. “A proportion of our eastern ivy colleges are meeting little fellows another Saturday before plunging into the strife and turmoil,” he wrote.

Associated Press sports writer Alan Gould is attributed with the first article referencing the “Ivy League,” writing on February 7, 1935, “The so-called ‘Ivy League’ which is in the process of formation among a group of the older eastern universities seems to have welcomed Brown into the fold and automatically assumed the proportions of a ‘big eight.’” While Gould may have been the first to use the term in print, the traditionally recognized Ivy League schools, as well as a few others, had competed against each other in football games since the 1870s. At times, the prestigious military academies, the United States Military Academy in West Point, New York, and the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, were also included in discussions of the Ivy League, both athletically and academically.

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The “Ivy League” Began as a Collegiate Athletic Conference

An informal football league was established in 1945 when the presidents of the eight Northeastern universities signed the Ivy Group Agreement. The schools already had a long history of competing against each other in sports — the first Harvard-Yale football game took place in 1875 (Harvard won 4-0) — but the agreement regulated athletic team standards, including academic expectations and eligibility requirements, such as a ban on athletic scholarships. The NCAA Division I athletic conference officially known as the Ivy League was established in 1954 when the Ivy Group Agreement was extended to all intercollegiate sports. Despite the relationship to sports, however, the name “Ivy League” endures as a shorthand reference for a certain type of college education — one associated with highly competitive admissions, academic excellence, and all of the privilege and power that can come out of an elite education.

Little-Known Facts About the Declaration of Independence

Signing the Declaration of Independence

Author Timothy Ott

June 30, 2025

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It’s perhaps the most famous document in American history — the collection of fighting words that formally severed ties with the British Empire and launched a precocious new nation into existence. But while some of its features are familiar to the public, including a few phrases from the preamble and the conspicuous signature of John Hancock, many details surrounding the Declaration of Independence are little known beyond historians of the subject.

Not unlike the esteemed local monuments that are ignored by longtime residents of New York City, Paris, or Rome, the Declaration of Independence is acknowledged for its importance but can be easily overlooked as a background accessory to daily existence. To help fill in the blanks, here are six facts about this illustrious founding document, which set the United States of America into motion back in that eventful summer of 1776.

Thomas Jefferson Became Its Author Due to His Reputation as a Writer

By the time the Second Continental Congress convened in May 1776, Thomas Jefferson had not yet achieved the legendary status he enjoys today as an inner-circle founding father. Yet the quiet, 33-year-old lawyer and member of the Virginia House of Burgesses had already earned renown for penning the pamphlet A Summary View of the Rights of British America (1774), which laid bare many of the grievances against government abuses of power that resurfaced in the Declaration of Independence.

Jefferson also eloquently defended the colonists’ cause early in the American Revolution as a co-author of The Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms (1775). As a result, he was a logical choice to join the Committee of Five tasked with crafting a Declaration of Independence in June 1776. According to the later recollections of fellow committee member John Adams, Jefferson suggested that Adams undertake the first draft, but the latter pushed the responsibility back to his younger colleague on the grounds that “I had a great Opinion of the Elegance of his pen and none at all of my own.”

Jefferson Liberally Borrowed From Other Works

From his Philadelphia boarding house, Jefferson set about creating a statement that was, as he later put it, "intended to be an expression of the american mind" while "neither aiming at originality of principle or sentiment." He subsequently borrowed ideas and passages from existing documents, including the George Mason-penned Virginia Declaration of Rights. That document’s assertion that "all men are by nature equally free and independent, and have certain inherent rights" such as "the enjoyment of life and liberty" found its way into Jefferson's preamble.

But while he wasn't necessarily summoning his wording from scratch, Jefferson nevertheless was peeved with some of the edits made by the other delegates in early July. He was particularly upset by the removal of a passage that blamed the evils of the transatlantic slave trade on King George III, despite benefiting from the system as an enslaver himself.

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It Took Weeks for News of Independence To Reach Some Colonies

Although the first copies of the Declaration of Independence were churned out by printer John Dunlap on the night of July 4, 1776, it took some time for communities outside Philadelphia to learn of the historic undertaking. A transcript of the document first appeared in the July 6 edition of The Pennsylvania Evening Post, beating Dunlap's own newspaper, The Pennsylvania Packet, to the punch by two days. From there, the news gradually spread to neighboring colonies, leading to its initial publications in New York on July 10, in Massachusetts and New Hampshire on July 16, and in South Carolina on August 2. It took another week for word of American independence to reach the other side of the Atlantic, with its announcement in the August 10 edition of The London Gazette.

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Historians Aren't 100% Sure Who Penned the Official Copy

Given all the literature surrounding Jefferson's authorship of the Declaration of Independence, it's surprising that there's no record of who actually wrote out the 1,300-plus words on the official engrossed parchment that's now under lock and key at the National Archives Building in Washington, D.C. That said, historians have a pretty good idea that the scribe was Timothy Matlack, clerk to Continental Congress Secretary Charles Thomson.

A brewer and militia colonel, Matlack sported a more colorful background than most of the well-heeled congressional delegates, as he had been disowned by the Quakers for his love of gambling and served time in debtors' prison. But the well-connected Philadelphian undoubtedly possessed a delicate hand in spite of the rough edges of his lifestyle; he penned two copies of Congress' Petition to the King in 1774 as well as George Washington's formal commission as commander in chief of the Continental Army in 1775. It's through comparisons to these earlier documents that historians have determined the Declaration of Independence's penmanship is likely that of Matlack.

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Some Congressional Delegates Refused To Sign the Declaration

Although John Hancock, the Continental Congress president, led the parade when the engrossed Declaration of Independence was ready for signing on August 2, 1776, not all of the delegates affixed their names in the available space at the bottom of the parchment. Some, such as Committee of Five member Robert Livingston of New York, refused to sign, either out of hope of reconciliation with Great Britain or the belief that it was premature to declare independence. Others, including General George Washington, were tied up with other activities and never got the chance to join the party.

Altogether, it’s believed that 49 delegates provided signatures during the August 2 session, with another six adding theirs at some point over the next four months. When the signers' names first appeared in public by way of the Goddard Broadsides in January 1777, all but one of the eventual 56 signatures were present, with Thomas McKean of Delaware finally supplying his autograph sometime by 1781.

The Document Underwent a Long, Winding Journey to its Current Home

Today, the engrossed Declaration of Independence is carefully guarded in climate-controlled conditions at the National Archives rotunda (along with the U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights), but it didn't always enjoy such secure environs. The parchment was transferred from Philadelphia to Baltimore to avert approaching British forces in late 1776, and was frequently packed for transport as the itinerant Continental Congress reemerged in locations along the Eastern Seaboard over the following years.

It was again hastily moved before the British set Washington, D.C., ablaze in August 1814, and while the threat of invasion largely diminished by the late 19th century, the Declaration of Independence was exposed to excessive lighting and fluctuating temperatures as it bounced between government buildings in the nation's capital. Even after the National Archives Building was completed with an exhibition hall specifically designed to display the engrossed copy in the mid-1930s, it took nearly two decades of cutting through administrative red tape before the document settled into its permanent home in 1952.

5 Things You Never Knew About U.S. Currency

U.S. dollar bills

Author Mark DeJoy

June 30, 2025

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Tracing the development of a nation’s currency can provide a unique glimpse into the nation itself. But currency is complicated — its history often defies a simple straight-line narrative, and there are countless technicalities along the way that threaten to glaze over the eyes of anyone without a degree in economics. So let’s take a look at some of the most interesting moments in the history of U.S. currency, and leave the rest to the economists.

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The First National Bills Were Called “Continentals”

The first national paper currency for what would become the United States of America was issued by the Continental Congress in 1775. Known as Continental currency, it was intended as a way to fund the Revolutionary War. Though the currency started strong, a lack of adequate revenue sources (and mismanagement by the government) resulted in its quick depreciation. To make matters worse, Great Britain counterfeited the 1777 and 1778 issues of Continental currency in an act of wartime economic sabotage, and did so to such an extent that Congress was forced to recall both printings. As the currency’s value continued to plummet, Congress stopped printing new Continentals altogether in 1779; though the bills continued to circulate, they were worth only 1% of their face value by 1781.

New Coins Were Minted Under Alexander Hamilton

By the end of the 18th century, the United States needed a currency do-over. In 1791, Alexander Hamilton, the nation’s first treasury secretary, established the Bank of the United States in order to create a stable system of credit for the government. The following year, Congress passed the Coinage Act of 1792, which called for a standard national mint in Philadelphia that would produce coins made of copper, silver, and gold. These coins included the very same denominations we use today, but there was also a broader range of values. Coins made of copper included the half cent and cent; coins made of silver included the half dime, dime, quarter, half dollar, and dollar; and coins made of gold included the quarter eagle ($2.50), half eagle ($5), and eagle ($10).

The U.S. Dollar Was Based on the Spanish Peso

The U.S. dollar originated as a coin based on the Spanish milled dollar, known in Spain as the peso, mimicking both its weight and value in silver. The origins of the dollar sign, however, are unclear. One common theory is that because the U.S. dollar and the Spanish peso were so similar, the symbol evolved from the superimposition of the “S” and “P” from the old shorthand for peso (“ps”), which was then simplified into the dollar sign. Another theory is that the dollar sign is a similar refinement of superimposing the United States’ initials. A variation of that theory suggests it originated as a superimposed “U” and “S,” but the initials stood for “units of silver.” Plausibility aside, there is no substantive evidence for these (or any other) theories. Despite the iconic status of the dollar sign today, its exact origin remains a mystery.

Credit: Alfred Gescheidt/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

George Washington Wasn’t on the First Dollar Bill

The very first United States $1 note was printed in 1862, as part of the legal tender nicknamed “greenbacks” for their color. This first dollar bill didn’t include an image of George Washington anywhere on it; instead, on the front of the note was the likeness of then-Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase. Yes, the official in charge of creating the currency opted to put his own image on it. Chase later described how that came to be during a speech: “I went to work and made ‘greenbacks’ and a good many of them. I had some handsome pictures put on them; and as I like to be among the people… and as the engravers thought me rather good looking, I told them they might put me on the end of the one-dollar bills.”

Aside from Chase’s face, the greenbacks also included anti-counterfeiting measures such as the U.S. Treasury seal, engraved signatures, and complex patterns and shapes made by geometric lathe. These early anti-counterfeiting measures are the root of techniques still in use today (though today they are augmented by other identifying factors). As for George Washington, his image replaced Chase’s on the dollar bill for good in 1869 — a recurrent provision in Section 116 of the annual Financial Services and General Government Appropriations Act prevents any redesign of the $1 note.

Credit: Underwood Archives/ Archive Photos via Getty Images

There Used To Be a $10,000 Bill

The $100 bill is now the largest denomination of American currency, but there were once much larger notes printed. Until their discontinuation in 1969, notes in $500, $1,000, $5,000, and $10,000 denominations were issued (though not widely circulated for reasons that are self-evident). With the exception of the $5,000 bill, each note had “blue seal” and “green seal” versions. Pictured on the blue seal $500 was former Secretary of State John Marshall, while President William McKinley appeared on the green seal version. The blue seal $1,000 depicted Alexander Hamilton, while its green seal counterpart featured Grover Cleveland. Founding father James Madison was pictured on the $5,000 note. And the $10,000 note — the highest value of American currency ever circulated — was the only one to have the same person pictured on both versions. Who else could that honor have gone to but Salmon P. Chase?

Just one piece of U.S. currency surpasses the $10,000 note as the largest denomination ever printed, though it was not circulated: the $100,000 gold certificate. Only printed for three weeks between 1934 and 1935, the gold certificate was exclusively intended for transactions between Federal Reserve Banks. Woodrow Wilson is portrayed on the front of the note. Possession of the $100,000 gold certificate by a civilian is illegal, an infraction that might be a contender for the strangest possible financial crime.

What’s the Real Story of Isaac Newton and the Apple?

Isaac Newton with an apple

Author Tony Dunnell

June 30, 2025

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It’s one of the most iconic images in scientific history: Isaac Newton is sitting beneath an apple tree when a piece of falling fruit hits him on the head, sparking his revolutionary theory of universal gravitation. The tale has been told in countless textbooks and popular accounts, and has become a metaphor for “eureka” moments and the process of scientific discovery in general.

But did an apple actually fall on Newton’s head? Or is this account a fanciful fiction that attached itself to the story of Newton’s brilliant scientific and mathematical insights? Here, we take a closer look at the well-known tale of Newton and the falling apple, and the truth behind one of history’s greatest scientific discoveries.

The Story of the Falling Apple

You’re probably familiar with the basic tale of Newton and the apple tree. The story typically has a young Newton sitting beneath an apple tree in the gardens of Woolsthorpe Manor, his childhood home, which he happened to be visiting in 1666. Then, suddenly, an apple falls from the tree, hitting Newton square on the head and triggering his moment of inspiration. (Here the teller of the tale may insert a shout of “Aha!” or “Eureka!”) In this moment, Newton comes to the magnificent realization that the force that made the apple fall is the very same force that keeps the moon and planets in their orbits. And with this, his theory of universal gravitation is born.

Isaac Newton’s Own Account

This story wasn’t plucked out of thin air: The now-legendary moment was based on Newton’s own account, which he told to several acquaintances near the end of his life. Among the first people was his niece Catherine Barton (later Catherine Conduitt). Barton then recounted the story to others, including French Enlightenment philosopher Voltaire, who briefly mentioned the incident in his 1727 Essay on Epic Poetry: “Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens, had the first thought of his system of gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a tree.”

The previous year, in 1726, Catherine Barton’s husband, John Conduitt, also referenced the incident in his notes, writing how Newton first came upon his “system of gravitation… by observing an apple fall from a tree.”

The most detailed contemporary account comes from William Stukeley, an archaeologist and one of Newton’s first biographers. In his Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton’s Life (published in 1752), Stukeley related a conversation he had with Newton, a year before the scientist’s death in 1727: “We went into the garden, and drank thea under the shade of some apple trees, only he, and myself. Amidst other discourse, he told me, he was just in the same situation, as when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind. ‘Why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground,’ thought he to himself: occasion’d by the fall of an apple, as he sat in a contemplative mood: ‘Why should it not go sideways, or upwards? But constantly to the earth’s centre?’”

An Apple Likely Fell, But Not on Newton’s Head

From these accounts, there’s strong evidence to suggest that Newton did indeed tell a number of acquaintances about how a falling apple helped form his theory of universal gravitation. But while the moment is often presented as a true epiphany, exactly how much an apple inspired Newton is open to debate, and we can’t know to what extent the falling fruit informed his scientific thinking.

Some academics — most notably John and Mary Gribbin in their book Out of the Shadow of a Giant: Hooke, Halley, and the Birth of Science — have argued that Newton made up the apple story altogether, possibly to support his claim that he had the idea of a universal theory of gravity before Robert Hooke, who famously accused Newton of plagiarism.

One part of the story that has no supporting evidence — despite being a popular aspect of the tale — is the apple actually falling right on Newton’s head. This seems to be nothing more than a later embellishment, yet one that has managed to become engrained in popular culture up until the present day.

We Tried To Write an Entire Article in Middle English

Page from “The Canterbury Tales”

Author Nicole Villeneuve

June 19, 2025

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When William of Normandy invaded England in 1066, it began a transformation of the Old English language. The Norman conquerors replaced the Anglo-Saxon ruling class, bringing with them their Anglo-Norman language, which was based on Old French. Over time, the two languages blended. Old English grammar became simpler, and the English vocabulary expanded with the addition of French words. The result was a new stage of the English language: Middle English, spoken around 1100 to 1500.

During this time, Geoffrey Chaucer wrote The Canterbury Tales, one of the most famous examples of Middle English literature. Chaucer’s writing — and the English language in general — was not uniform at this time. Spellings varied and were often phonetic, and pronunciation differed by region; Chaucer often used whichever version of a word fit his rhyme.

There were some differences between the Middle English alphabet and our modern alphabet. Middle English included letters such as “þ” (known as thorn) for the “th” sound, and some other letters — such as “u” and “v” or “i” and “j” — were interchangeable. There were also some common words we no longer use. Middle English used “thou” for informal speech and “ye” as a formal or plural form, both of which were replaced by “you.” And third-person verbs ended in “eth” or “th” (such as “goeth”), which was later simplified to “s.” During the Great Vowel Shift, which occurred between 1350 and 1600, the pronunciation of many words also changed. For example, in Middle English, “sheep” sounded more like “shape,” and “bite” sounded like “beet.”

Another major shift occurred when the printing press was introduced to England in 1476, marking the start of a new stage of the language, known as Modern English. As printed books became more widespread, spelling and grammar became more consistent, and English began to take its current form.

Middle English Translation

Below is the same article written in Middle English. For this translation, we referenced the University of Michigan’s Middle English Dictionary, Harvard’s translation of “The Canterbury Tales,” the 14th-century Wycliffe Bible, and various AI tools including Claude Sonnet, ChatGPT, and OpenL. We omitted special characters such as ī, ǒ, ā, ē̆, and obsolete letters such as þ (thorn) and ƿ (wynn), using the modern English alphabet instead. It’s also worth noting that many words in Middle English had multiple spellings, so there is more than one possible translation.

Whanne William of Normandi iyede Engelond in the yeer of oure Lord a thousand and six and sixti, it bigan a gret chaunge of the Olde Englissh langage. The Norman conquerours becomen the Anglo-Saxon lordes, and bringen with hem here Anglo-Norman langage, which camen of Olde Frenssh. Over tyme, the two langages blenden. Olde Englissh gramere was moore simple, and the Englissh wordes expanden with the addicioun of Frenssh wordes. Thereof cam a newe tyme of the Englissh langage: Middel Englissh, spoken betwixe the yeer of oure Lord a thousand an hundred and the yeer a thousand an five hundred.

During this tyme, Geffrey Chaucer wroot The Tales of Caunterbury, oon of the moost famous ensamples of Middel Englissh litterature. Chaucer's writyng — and the Englissh langage in generale — was nat uniforme at this tyme. Spellinges varied and were often writen after the soun, and pronunciacioun varied by regioun; Chaucer often used which-ever versioun of a word fitte his rime.

Ther were som differences betwixe the Middel Englissh alphabete and oure Modern Englissh alphabete. Middel Englissh includid lettres swich “þ” (icleped thorn) for the “th” soun, and som lettres — swich “u” and “v” or “i” and “j” — were bothe used. Ther were also som commun wordes we speketh nomore. Middel Englissh used “thou” for informal speche and “ye” as a formal or plurel forme, bothe of which were chaunged to “you.” And thrid-persoun verbes endden in “eth” or “th” (swich “goeth”), which bicometh “s.” During the Gret Vouel Shiften, that fel bitwixe the yeer of oure Lord a thousand thre hundred and fifti and a thousand six hundred, the pronunciacioun of mani wordes also chaunged. For ensample, in Middel Englissh, “sheep” wolde soun moore lyk “shape,” and “bite” wolde soun lyk “beet.”

Another gret shiften fallen whanne the prentyng presse camen to Engelond in the yeer of oure Lord a thousand foure hundred six and seventi, bringing the biginning of a newe tyme of the langage, icleped Modern Englissh. As prented bookes bicom moore brod-spred, spelling and gramere bicometh moore stedefast, and Englissh bigan to take his present forme.

5 Military Strategies That Shouldn’t Have Worked But Did

Vercingetorix surrenders to Caesar

Author Tony Dunnell

June 18, 2025

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History shows us that strategy in warfare can be far more important than superior numbers or technology. Indeed, some ingenious, unconventional, and seemingly foolhardy strategies have produced unexpected victories.

Military doctrine, both ancient and modern, typically emphasizes principles such as concentrating force, securing flanks, and choosing the right terrain and weather conditions for the task at hand. But some of history’s most remarkable successes came from deliberately violating these established rules.

We all know the story of the Trojan horse, in which Greek soldiers took the city of Troy — after a futile 10-year siege — by hiding in a giant horse supposedly left as an offering to the goddess Athena. While this famously left-field strategy is probably a myth, there are other wartime tactics that seemed destined for failure yet managed to achieve unlikely success.

Here, we look at five military strategies that shouldn’t have worked but did — maneuvers that succeeded precisely because they were so unexpected that their opponents had no contingency plans to counter them.

Hannibal’s Alpine Crossing

In 218 BCE, during the Second Punic War, the Carthaginian general Hannibal was determined to take the fight directly to the Roman Republic. Defying all conventional military wisdom, Hannibal decided to make a surprise attack into Northern Italy — but to do so, he would have to march his massive army across the Alps. The plan was near suicidal. Hannibal’s forces included 70,000 men, 20,000 horses, and 37 war elephants, all totally unsuited for crossing one of Europe’s most formidable mountain ranges.

It could have gone down as one of history’s greatest military disasters. Treacherous mountain passes, freezing temperatures, and potential ambushes by local tribes all conspired against Hannibal and his men — hundreds of whom died on the march — and yet the bulk of the force managed to cross the Alps in just 16 days. Rome never expected an attack from the north, and it was the audacity of Hannibal’s strategy that allowed him to establish a foothold in Northern Italy, from which he proceeded to attack the Romans on their own territory for the next 15 years. Hannibal crossing the Alps remains one of the most famous and celebrated achievements of any military force in ancient warfare.

Caesar's Double Fortifications

When Julius Caesar besieged the Gallic fortress of Alesia in 52 BCE, he learned that a massive relief army of Gauls was approaching. Caesar had 10 to 12 Roman legions consisting of around 50,000 legionaries, while the fortified hilltop settlement of Alesia contained some 12,000 horsemen and 80,000 foot soldiers. Caesar had already constructed an encircling line of fortifications, known as a contravallation, around Alesia to keep the Gallic defenders in. But the approaching relief army may have numbered as many as 250,000 soldiers — meaning the overall numbers were certainly not in Caesar’s favor.

Every ounce of conventional wisdom suggested that Caesar should abandon the siege and retreat. Instead, he built a second set of fortifications facing outward — a circumvallation — essentially trapping his own army between two enemy forces. Three days of brutal fighting ensued, with the Romans at times at risk of being overrun. On the third day, Caesar himself led four cohorts and a contingent of cavalry to attack the relief army from behind to turn the tide of battle. The Gauls eventually lost the will to fight and Caesar demanded they lay down their arms, at which point the Gallic leaders surrendered.

Credit: Hilary Morgan/ Alamy Stock Photo

George Washington's Christmas Night Crossing of the Delaware

The American Revolutionary War was going poorly for the Continental Army by August 1776, with British troops occupying New York City and morale plummeting after multiple defeats. George Washington, the commander in chief of the Continental Army, was determined to rectify the situation. He conceived a plan that would have seemed to many like a truly desperate gambit. He decided to lead his men across the ice-choked Delaware River at night, during a winter storm, to launch a surprise attack on a garrison of 1,400 Hessian mercenaries (hired by the British) at Trenton, New Jersey.

Military convention strongly advised against winter campaigns, night operations, and river crossings in bad conditions — but Washington attempted all three simultaneously. At 11 p.m. on Christmas Day, he led 2,400 soldiers across the icy and freezing river, reaching the New Jersey side just before dawn. Two further divisions, consisting of 3,000 troops and crucial field artillery, failed to cross in time. Washington forged on nonetheless, successfully launching a surprise attack and capturing nearly 1,000 Hessians at the cost of four American lives. News of the victory provided a massive morale boost, and Washington’s unusual yet critical strategic decision led to further American victories, including the Battle of Trenton and Battle of Princeton.

The Capture of Tabor Bridge

In 1805, during the Napoleonic Wars, French Marshal Joachim Murat and his forces faced a critical obstacle — the strategically vital Tabor Bridge crossing the Danube River. Their Austrian and Russian opponents had retreated to the other side of the river to regroup, destroying many of the bridges after they had crossed. The bridges near Vienna, including the Tabor (which was actually a series of three bridges) remained standing, but were rigged to detonate should the French try to take them. Knowing that any conventional assault would result in the destruction of the remaining bridges, Murat and Marshal Jean Lannes came up with a seemingly preposterous strategy: They would simply walk up to the Austrians guarding Tabor Bridge and convince them to hand it over.

Leaving precise instructions with their soldiers, Murat and Lannes walked somewhat nonchalantly to the bridge in full dress uniform. They strolled past confused Austrian engineers, who were ready to light the fuses and destroy the bridge. They made it to the middle of the bridge, where they were met by an Austrian colonel who promptly asked why two such notable marshals were walking unarmed across an enemy-held bridge in the midst of a war.

The marshals politely asked to speak with the Austrian commander, whom they convinced that an armistice had been signed — and that there was no need to destroy the bridge as the two sides were no longer at war. In the meantime, the French troops began casually approaching the bridge, with not a shot fired. Within two hours, the Austrians had turned over the bridge to the French, who proceeded to cross the Danube to continue the war. Murat and Lannes had gone against military doctrine by risking their lives in such brazen fashion, but they pulled off the unlikely ruse.

Credit: Pictorial Press Ltd/ Alamy Stock Photo

Operation Mincemeat

Another improbable strategic bluff took place during World War II. As the Allies prepared to invade Sicily in 1943, they faced a serious problem: Sicily was an obvious target and the Germans were well prepared to defend it. So, British intelligence officers devised a plan so outlandish, it seemed more like the stuff of fiction.

They obtained the body of a recently deceased homeless person named Glyndwr Michael, dressed him as a Royal Marines officer, and created an elaborate false identity — “Major William Martin,” complete with personal items including a photograph of his fictitious fiancée, a receipt for an engagement ring, and a theater ticket stub. Crucially, the body also carried secret documents — written in code the British knew the Germans could decipher — which purported to reveal the true targets for the forthcoming invasion: Greece and Sardinia, with Sicily intended as a mere feint.

In April 1943, the body of “Major Martin” was launched into the sea from the British submarine HMS Seraph, just off the southern coast of Spain. It was soon recovered by pro-German locals, and the “secret” documents were passed via Nazi sympathizers to German intelligence officers. Just a couple of weeks later, Adolf Hitler declared that Sicily was not the next landing and that Greece and Sardinia must be reinforced. Operation Mincemeat had been a success — a brilliantly unorthodox strategic deception that paved the way for the invasion of Sicily.

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